HISTORICAL ROLE OF JAINISM

Chapter VI

HISTORICAL ROLE OF JAINISM

Jainism was dominant in Magadha during the reign of the Nandas (364-324 B.C.) and the Mauryas (324-300 B.C.). Afterwards, it migrated to the different regions of the North, South and West, and flourished there. In the Gupta period, Jainism received no royal patronage, and therefore declined. In the South, Jainism continued to develop because of the encouragement given by the rulers. The period from the eighth to the twelfth century A.D. is regarded as the golden period in the history of Jainism because the Jaina monks, statesmen and merchants contributed to its development. A large number of people accepted Jainism, and they formed castes. Numerous temples were built, and images were installed in them. Jaina scholars enriched the different languages by their works. Afterwards, Jainism had setbacks during the medieval period, under the Muslims, but it could not be extinct completely because of devotion of the Árävakas and saints to Jainism.

1. Jainism Under The Nandas (364-324 B.C.)

The Nandas were the most powerful rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move towards the east. The Nanda ruler Mahäpadma claimed the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes. It seems that he acquired Kaliõga and annexed Kosala to his kingdom.

Jainism appears to have been followed during the reign of the Nandas in Magadha. From the Udayagiri cave inscription¹ of Khäravela, it is known that Nanda king removed the Jaina image from Kaliõga to Päûaliputra. This throws light on the antiquity of the Jaina sculptural art as well as the fact that Nanda was the follower of Jainism.

According to Jaina tradition, the Nanda dynasty as such had a line of Jaina ministers beginning with Kalpaka². It was with the help of this minister that king Nanda uprooted all the reigning Kshatriya dynasties³, and as the Jaina tell us, all the ministers of the Nandas were his descendants⁴. The minister of the ninth Nanda was Áakatäla, who had two sons. The elder was Sthülabhadra and the younger son was called Árïyaka. After the death of Áakatäla, Nanda offered the minisership to his elder son Sthülabhadra, but the latter refused and, perceiving the vanity of the world, took Dikshä or joined the order under Sambhütavijaya⁵, the sixth pontiff of the Jaina church. The ministership was finally given to his brother Árïyaka who was in the king’s office⁶.

That the Jainas were powerful in the days of the Nandas is also clear from the Sanskrit play Mudrä Räkshasa, which dramatises the story of Chandragupta’s accession and tells us that the Jainas held a prominent position at that time, and that Chäîakya who was the prime agent in the revolution, employs a Jaina as one of the Chief emissaries⁷

The Baâali inscription, which G.H. OJHA, records as of the year 84 of Mahävïra Nirväîa Saãvat, proves the existence of the Jainism at Nagri even in the fifth century B.C. during the reign of the Nandas⁸. K.P. JAYASWAL agrees with G.H. OJHA in the reading, but he refers the year 84 to the Nanda era, which was counted from 458 B.C. and thus the instance inscription seems to be of the fourth century B.C.⁹ D.C. SIRCAR takes this Baâali inscription to be of the Second or First century B.C. According to him, this inscription, incised during the reign of king Bhägavata of the Áuîga dynasty¹⁰, seems to be a record of the pious working of an inhabitant of Mädhyamikä.

2. Account of the Greek Writers of Western India

The Greek writers supply very valuable information about the Indian philosophers whom Alexander met. SIRABO mentions two sects of philosophers — one called the Brachmaîes and the other Germanes.¹¹ Brachmanes represent the Brähmaîas and the Germanes, evidently a corruption of Sarmanes, which represents the Sanskrit Áramaîa (a Jaina ascetic). But the question is who these people were. Some say that these are Buddhist saints, but they seem to be Jaina sanits because they have been described as naked, and they are called by the name Gymnosophists. Nakedness is a special characteristic of the Jaina monks. PALINY says that their philosophers whom they call Gymnosophists, are accustomed to remain in one posture with their eyes immovably fixed on the Sun from dawn to dusk and to stand on the burning sands all day long now on one foot and now on the other.¹ One ONESLCRITUS says that these sages went about naked, inflicted hardships on themselves and were held in highest honour and when invited, they did not visit any-body but requested the persons concerned to come to them if they wanted to participate in their conversation.¹² This description applies to Digambara Jaina monks.

The Greek observers found women studying philosophy along with men. But they all led a life of extreme austerity.² And as the Brähmaîas did not generally admit their women to their philosophy, these women must have been, therefore, probably, the Sädhvis of the Jaina church.

Among these sages, one Kälnos who accompanied Alexander probably to instruct him in the matters of religion. His real name, according to PLUTARCH, was Sphines; and he received the name Kälnos among the Greeks because in saluting the persons, he used the word ‘Käle‘. It is probably the Sanskrit from Kalyäîa which is commonly used in addressing a person and signifies good, just or distinguished. When he became ill at Pasargadi, this being the first sickness he ever had, he put an end to his life in his seventy third year without heeding the entreaties of the king.¹³ This type of voluntary death is specially found among the Jainas. The Ratnakaraîda Árävakächära (Chap. 5) of Samantabhadra (about second century A.D.) dilates on sallekhanä which consists in abandoning the body for the accumulation of merit in calamities, famines, extreme old age and incurable diseases.

The Indian sages, according to the Greek writers, have been divided into two categories (1) the Brähmaîas and (2) Áramaîas. The Brähmaîas succeeded by right of birth to this kind of divine wisdom as to a priesthood. They are one family, the descendents of one father and mother. The Áramaîas, on the other hand, are taken from all Indian castes differently from all who wish to give themselves to the study of divine beings.¹⁴ These saints were probably Jaina saints, because there was no question of caste restriction in Jainism.

These naked Samnoi practise truth, make predictions about futurity and worship a kind of pyramid beneath which they think the bones of some divinity lie buried.¹⁵ This practice is also noticed among the Jainas who used to construct the Stüpas, specimens of which are found at Mathura.

According to the Greek writers, the society was divided into the five classes in accordance with the occupations. Some cultivate the soil; very many follow war and other trades. The noblest and richest manage public affairs, administer justice and sit in the council with the kings. A fifth class devotes itself to the philosophy prevalent in the country which almost assumes the form of religion and the members always put an end to their lives by burning themselves on funeral pile.¹⁶

The characteristics and practices of these saints indicate that they were Jaina saints. Jainism was prevalent in western India on the eve of the coming of the Greeks in India. The Jaina monks and nuns were found in such a large number that they caught the attention of the foreigners. If it is in the border provinces, it may have been in existence even in the adjacent region like Rajasthan.

3. Jainism Under The Mauryas (324-187 B.C.)

         Chandragupta (324-300 B.C.)

The Maurya was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who seems to have belonged to some ordinary family. He is one of the greatest emperors of India. He is first Indian ruler to bring about the unification of Northern India by his conquests and to rule over such a vast empire. From him actually, a continuous as well as unified history starts and he is, therefore, regarded as the first historical emperor. He is the earliest emperor in Indian history whose historicity can be established on the solid ground of ascertained chronology.We can locate him accurately in both time and space. With the help of Chäîakya known as Kauûilya, he overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of the Mauryas. He liberated North-Western India from the rule of Selecus, the Greek Viceroy of Alexander. He extended his empire by further conquests of Saurarhûra and some regions of South India.

There are Jaina traditions regarding Chandragupta’s association with the South. His conquest of some regions of the South India is also attested by the inscriptions of Aáoka found at some sites. He established an efficient administration as known from the Arthaáätra of Kauûilya and the Megasthaness Indica edited by Mcerindle.

Jain tradition avers that Chandragupat Maurya was a Jain. Both Tiloyapaîîati (600 A.D.) and Räjavalïkathä claim him to be Jain. Jainism was prevalent in his reign. The Jaina monks were frequently seen and mentioned within the empire of Chandragupta not only by Indians, but by Greek historians as well, Megasthenese, the Greek envoy to Chandragupta’s court, mentions of Áramaîas in his empire. He also says that Chandragupta submitted to devotional teaching of the Áramaîas as opposed to the doctrines of the Brähmaîas.¹⁷

It seems that Chandragupta was quite young and experienced when ascended the throne in or about 324 B.C. He must have been under fifty when his reign terminated twenty-four years later. When king Chandragupta Maurya was ruling over North India (either from Ujjain or from Päûaliputra), a great twelve years’ famine was foretold in Northern India by the Árutakevalin Bhadrabähu. He was at this time a great sanit of Jainism. When this prophecy began to be fulfilled, the saint led twelve thousand Jainas to the South and settled at Áravaîa Belagolä. At this time, Chandragupta abdicated the throne and accompanied his teacher Bhadrabähu. Bhadrabäu soon died, and Chandragupta survived after him for twelve years, and died in Sallekhanä.

Such famines are possible during this period as known from some very early inscriptions.The Mahasthäna stone plaque inscription¹⁸ found in the Bogra District of Bengal records an endowment to the Pañchavargïya Buddhist monks. The Sohgaura copper-plate inscription¹⁹ found in the Gorakhpur District of U.P. records a provision of grains and fodders during famines.

The tradition of migration of the great Árutakeval in Bhadrabähu and his disciple, the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta due to famine in the South is corroborated by the late literary and epigraphic evidences. Besides, there are the names of monuments at Áravaîabelagola in the memory of Bhadrabähu and Chandragupta Maurya. The Bôihatkathäkoáa of Harisena dated 931 A.D. Ratnanandi’s Bhadrabähu Charita of about 1450 A.D., the Kannaâa works Munivaãáäbhudaya of C. 1680 A.D. and the Räjavalïyakathä mention this incident. Several inscriptions²⁰ of Áravaîabelagolä refer to this tradition also. The oldest of these inscriptions is of about 600 A.D. Two inscriptions of about 900 A.D. describe the hill at Áravaîabelagolä as having its summit marked by the impress of the feet of Bhandrabähu and Munipati Chandragupta. Two inscripations of the year 1128 and 1169 A.D. are engraved with the names of Bhadrabähu Árutakevalin and Chandragupta. Another inscription of the year 1433 A.D. speaks of Yatindra Bhadrabähu and his disciple Chandragupta. All these agree to the main facts of breaking out famine in Bihar and migration of Jainas towards the South after the death of Bhadrabähu and Chandragupta at Chandragiri hill in the fourth Century B.C. The smaller hill Chandragiri is said to have derived its affiliation from the fact that Chandragupta was the first of the saints who lived and performed penance there. On the same hill is a cave named after Bhadrabähu and also a shrine called Chandragupta Basti, as it was erected by Chandragupta.

Both RICE LEWIS²¹ NARASIMHACHAR²² who have studied the Jaina inscriptions of Áravaîa Belagolä thoroughly, give a verdict in favour of Jaina tradition. According to both these scholars, credence may be given to the late traditions of migration of the Jainas to the South under the leadership of Árutakevalï Bhadrabähu and his royal disciple Chandragupta Maurya. This tradition also forms one of the links connected with the Digambara—Ávetambara Schism in the Jainas Saãgha. This tradition also shows that Chandragupta Maurya was a Jaina. EDWARD THOMAS²³, who has taken into consideration, the Greek accounts comes to the same opinion. HOERNLE²⁴ also accepts the immigration of Árutakevalï Bhadrabähu to the South.

On the other hand, J.F. FLEET²⁵ AND J. CHARAPENTIER²⁶ tried to maintain that this Jaina tradition had no historical basis. According to J.F. FLEET, the name Bhadrabähu of the two Ächäryas is found mentioned in the Digambara Paûûävalïs—one the last Árutakevalï Bhadrabähu and the other Bhadrabähu from which the Paûûävalï of Nandi Ämnäya of the Sarasvatï Gachchha. His disciple was Guptigupta. According to J.F. FLEET’s view, the saint who migrated to the South was Bhadrabähu, and Chandragupta was another name of Guptigupta. J.F. FLEET’s contention is wrong. There is no evidence to assume Guptigupta and Chandragupta as one. There is no reference to famine of twelve years during this time. He is not known to be initiated to monkhood after abdication of the throne.

1. CHARPENTIERdiscredits the account of the Digambaras and asserts that Bhadrabähu retired to Nepal in order to pass the reminder of his life in penance, leaving the succession to Sthülabhadra, a disciple of Bhadrabähu’s own contemporary monk, Sambhütavijaya.

Some of the modern Scholars of great reputes and authority have come to the conclusion that Chandragupta can safely be called a Jaina on the Authority of this tradition. The Jaina books (fifth century A.D.) and later Jaina inscriptions, observe K.P. JAYASWAL²⁷, “claim Chandragupta as a Jaina imperial ascetic. My studies have compelled me to respect the historical data of the Jaina writings, and I see no reason why we should not accept the Jaina claim that Chandragupta at the end of his reign accepted Jainism and abdicated and died as a Jaina ascetic.”

To quote V.A. SMITH²⁸, who has ultimately leaned towards Jainism. “The only direct evidence throwing light on the manner in which the eventful reign of chandragupat Maurya came to an end is that of Jaina tradition.  The Jainas always treat that great emperor as having been a Jaina, and no adequate reason seems to discredit their belief.” Besides this, H. JACOBI²⁹ tells us, ‘The date of Bhadrabähu’s death is placed indentically by all Jaina authors from Hemachandra down to the most modern Scholiast in the year 170 A.V. And this, according to our caluclation, falls in about 291 B.C. This date of the great pontiff’s Nirväîa exactly coincides with that of Chandragupta, who reigned from 321-297 B.C. Early evidence or evidences for Chandragupta Maurya being a Jaina might have disappeared, but still there are persistent late literary as well epigraphical traditions to prove him Jaina.

Chandragupta Maurya is known to have performed the consecration ceremony of the images and temples. In a village of Ghänghäîï, at a distance of twenty seven Km. frm Jodhpur in Rajasthan, there is an old temple of Pärávanätha. In V.S. 1662, many images were discovered in the tank of this place. By chance, the poet Sundaragaîi went on pilgrimage to this place and saw the inscription on the image and examined it. He is said to have read the inscription by the miraculous power given to him by the goddess Ambikä. He immediately composed the poem on it. According to it, Samräû Chandragupta made the golden image of Pärávanätha and its pratishthä was probably performed through Áruti-Kevalï Bhadrabähu.³⁰ This evidence is of a very late period and so there is much doubt about its correctness.

The Jainas legends tell that all the monks did not migrate from Magadha to the South and some preferred to remain in their old land. Apprehending the danger that could threaten the loss and distortion of the original teachings of Mahävïra Sthülabhadra, who according to Ávetambara tradition, assumed the leadership of the Saãgha in Magadha, summoned a council of Jaina Munis in 307 B.C. for the compilation of the teachings of Mahävïra which were preserved in the Pürvas. Thus, the sacred lore which was in a state of decay, was put in order. The Päûaliputra Council is referred to in the Ävaáyakachürîi of Jinadäsagaîi who flourished in the Second half of the seventh century A.D., and by Haribhadra who lived in the middle of the eight century A.D.

BINDUSÄRA (C. 300-273 B.C.)

Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusära, whose reign is important for continued links with the Greek princes. Bindusära followed the faith of his parents. The Jaina tents style him as a Jaina and entitle him as ‘Siãhasena’.

AÁOKA (C.273-236 B.C.)

Bindusära was succeeded by his son Aáoka. After his accession to the throne, Aáoka fought only one major war called the Kaliõga-War. Seeing the cruelty of the war, he adopted Buddhism. Though he professed Buddhism he preached ‘Dhamma‘ based on ehthics but not religious dogmas. He is regarded as one of the greatest figures in history. H.G. WELLS in the Outline of History describes him as ‘the greatest of Kings’ because he tried not only for the material but also spiritual welfare of the people.

It seems that in the beginning, Aáoka followed Jainism, the religion of his ancestors. The Siãhalese tradition says that during the life time of his father, when Aáoka was Viceroy of Ujjain, he developed affairs with a girl of a Áreshûhin named Devï who resided at Vidiáä and whom he married. It is possible that Devi belonged to some Jaina family.

It seems that even after Aáoka became Buddhist, he was more or less inclined towards Jainism. The use of the term ‘Äsinava‘, distinction between it and Päpa and the inclusion of the passions of the Jaina lists—violence, cruelty, anger, conceit and envy are enough to convince any body that in all likelihood, Aáoka has adopted and assimilated some psychological concepts of Jainism.

There are several definite evidences to prove that Aáoka was influenced by Jainism. He emphasised on ‘non-slaughter of animate beings and non-injury to creatures in Pillar Edict-V. In Rock Edict-I, he mentions that many hundred of living beings were formerly slaughtered every day in the kitchen of Priyadaráï, but now only three living creatures were killed daily for the sake of curry. Even this animal is not slaughtered regularly. These three living beings shall not be killed in future. The Pillar Edict VII mentions Nirgranûhas known as Jaina Árävakas. Dharmamahämätras appointed for the propagation of Dhamma by Aáoka were also recruited from the Nirgranthas and the Áramaîas.

SAMPRATI

When Kuîäla lost his claim to the throne of Magadha on account of his blindness, his son Samprati was declared as the rightful successor by Aáoka. Recently, the historicity of Samprati has been proved because Samprati Vihära after the name of Samprati was existing at Vadamänu in the Krishna-Valley during the second century A.D.³¹ Under the influence of Suhastin, the leading saint of the Jaina Commuinty under Mahägiri, Smprati was converted to Jainism. He tried to spread Jainism by every means in his power, working as hard for Jainism as Aáhoka had done for Buddhism. He is therefore regarded as a Jaina Aáoka. According to Jaina scriptures, he had decided to rinse his mouth in the moring, only after hearing the news of a new temple having been built. Besides, he got all the old and existing temples repaired and set up into all of them the idols mode of gold, stone, silver, brass and of a mixture of fine metals and performed their ‘Añjanaáaläkä Ceremony i.e. declared them fit for worship. Within three years and a half, he got one hundred and twenty-five thousand new temples built, thirty-six thousand repaired, twelve and a half millions of idols consecrated and ninety-five thousand metal idols prepared.³²

Samprati is said to have erected Jaina temples throughout within his empire. He founded Jaina monasteries even in the non-Aryan countries, and almost all ancient Jaina temples or monuments of unknown origin are ascribed by the popular voice to Samprati. It may also be noted that all the Jaina monuments of Rajasthan and Gujrat, whose builder is not known, are attributed to Samprati³³. TOD³⁴ attributes an old temple at Kumbhalmera to Samprati. At Nadlai, there is a Jaina temple dedicated to Ädinätha. On the seat of the image is engraved an inscription dated V.S. 1686 which speaks of its being rebuilt by the whole Jaina Community of Nadalai. The temple was originally erected by Samprati³⁵. In the Seventeenth century A.D., Jainas at Nadalai believed that the temple was built by Samprati; so there was an old tradition to this effect. He is said to have celebrated the installation ceremony of the image of Padmaprabha at a place named Gharighäîï, through Ärya Suhasti in V.N.S.-203³⁶.

Samprati is known to have propagated Jainism not only in his kingdom but also in adjacent countries. He sent out missionaries as far as South India to preach Jainism in peninsula where his creed secured widespread popularity and made the regions of Andhra, Dravida, Mahäräshûra and Coorg safe for Jaina monks. According to literary tradition, Salisuka, brother of Samprati Maurya, contributed to the spread of Jainism in Kathiawad. Besides this, Samprati took other steps for the propagation of Jainism. From the Jaina books, it is known that he started Saãgha from Ujjain to Áatruñjaya in the company of Suhasti with five thousand Áramaîas. He is also said to have convoked a council for the propagation of Jaina religion under Suhasti.

This account for the propagation of Jainism by Samprati seems to be hyperbolic but there seems to be some truth in it. The recent excavations³⁷ in the Krishna valley conducted at a Vaddamanu identified with the ancient Place Vardhamäna named after the last Jaina Tïrthaõkara yielded the Jaina remains such as Stüpas, ellipsoidal structures, stone sculptures on pillars, slabs and toraîas confirm the activities of Samprati for the propagation of Jainism. The inscriptions inscribed on potsherds reveal the names of Tïrthaõkaras Vôishabhanätha, Vardhamäna, Aranätha etc. These remains seem to have belonged to the Suõga-Sätavähana period. The names of important Jaina preceptors and their disciples with the details of Gaîas, Gotras and Áäkhäs are found engraved on pottery pieces. The names such as Samprativihära and Jinonavihära are found inscribed. These inscriptions give reference to female devotees. The pillara, Süchïs (cross slabs), Ushaîishas (coping slabs) and the Toraîa contained a variety of religions symbols like Stüpas, Aharmachakra, Ratnatriya, Nandipada, Kevalavôiksha, Svastika and so on.

The remains of the foundation of the oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at Lohänipura, near Patha. Two torsos of the Jaina image were also found at Patna. This proves that Jaina temple and images were worshipped during the Maurya period, in Magadha.

‘Nigaûasa Vihära Dipa’ inscribed on one of the pot sherds found at Kasrawad³⁸ proves the existence of the Jaina monastery. It means that the lamp from Nigaûa’s monastery was used for lighting the rooms. This monastery may be attributed to the Maurya period.

When Ärya Suhastin visited Ujjain in order to worship the image of Jïvanta Svämï, Avanti Sukumäla took the vocation of monkhood from him³⁹. After the death of Avanti Sukumäla, a Stüpa was erected in order to commemorate him and the image of Pärávanätha was installed in it. After some time, the Stüpa became barren, and it was known by the name of Kuâugeávara (God of the Great Forest).

Being a holy place, Ujjain was frequently visited by Jaina saints such as Chaîâarudra, Bhadrakagupta, Äryarakshita and Ärya Äshäâha⁴⁰. Vajra dwelt at Tumba-vanagräma (Tumain).

After Siãhagiri had taught him the even Aõgas, Vajrasvämi went from Daáapara to Bhadragupta at Avanti (Ujjayini) to learn the twelfth viz. the Dôishûivädaõga. He was the last who knew the complete ten Pürvas, and from him arose the Vajraáäkhä⁴¹. Daáapura (Mandsor) is the birth place of the Jaina Saint Äryarkshit who learned from Vajra Svämi nine Pürvas, and a fragment of the tenth, and taught them to his pupil Durbalikäpushpamitra⁴². The seventh schism in Jainism occurred at this place. Jaina traditions aver that Vajr Svämï and other Jaina pontiffs, obtained liberation in the hills Kunjarävarta and Rathävarta in the neighbourhood of Vidiáä, now known as Bhilsa⁴³.

4. JAINISM UNDER THE ÁUÕGAS (187-75 B.C)

         PUSHYAMITRA (C. 187-151 B.C.)

Bôihadratha, the last Maurya Emperor, was murdered in the presence of the army by the Brähmaîa Commander-in-Chief Pushyamitra who became the founder of the Áuõga dynasty. The first event of his reign was his confilict with Vidarbha. He had also to face the Greek invasion of Indo-Bactrian rulers Demetrious and Menander. He performed two horse sacrifices. According to the Divyävadäna he was a persecutor of Buddhism. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra who had the exprience of governing Vidiáä as Viceroy under his father. Agnimitra’s son Vasumitra in his earlier days defeated the Yavanas. The Indo-Greek king Antialkidas of Taxila sent his ambassador Heliodorus, son of Dion (Diya) to the court of the Áuõga ruler Bhägavata or Käáïputra Bhägabhedra. The Käîvas, also Brähmaîas seized power about seventy-two B.C.

Generally, a very common charge has been levelled against the Áuõga king Pushyamitra that he was a staunch Brähmaîa and caused the death of Buddhist and Jaina monks. This assumption is based on the version of the Buddhist text Divyävadäna⁴⁴ which says that he put the price of one hundred dinäras for the head of single monk. This account of Pushyamitra’s vendetta against the monks seems to be exaggerated because a similar vengeance against the Äjivikas and Nirgranthas is attributed to Pushyamitra in the same tent, where it is stated that he put the price of one dinär for the head of Nirgrantha. He is said to be responsible for destroying monasteries and monks from Magadha to Jullandhara area in the modern Punjab. Täränätha also affirms that Pushyamitra was the ally of unbelievers and himself burnt monasteries and slew monks.

But the above charges for the prosecution of the Buddhists and the Jainas against Pushyamitra Áuõga do not seem to be correct. In fact, the Brähmaîas did not interfere with the Áramaîa religions—Buddhism and Jainism. Neither Buddhism nor Jainism had eclipsed, for some magnificent Buddhist and Jaina monuments were erected in the kingdom of the Áuõgas. Therefore it can be concluded that the Divyävadäna, no doubt, gives a shortsighted view. The Buddhist monuments of Bharhut and Sanchi erected during the sovereignty of the Áuõgas do not bear out the theory that Áuõgas were the leaders of a militant Brähmanism. The causes of persecutions against Buddhism and Jainism by Pushyamitra may be owing to the personal and potitical reasons.

That the Jainas were holding good position in Uttar-Pradesh is also evident from two inscriptions⁴⁵ of the second century B.C. recovered from Pabhosä near Kauáämbï which are of much historical importance.

No.1 By Äsäâhasena, the son of Gopälï Vaihidarï (i.e. Vaihidara-princess, and maternal uncle of king Bahasatimitra), son of Gopälï, a cave was caused to be made in the tenth year of—- of the Kaááapïya Arhats.

No.2. Caused to be made by Äshäâhasena, son of the Vaihidara (Vaihidara-princess, and) son of king Bhägavata, son of the Tevani (i.e. Traivarîa-Princess, and) son of king Vaãgapäla, son of Áonakäyana (Saunakäyana of Adhichchhatra).

These two inscriptions of the second or first century B.C. are of historical value because they give the pedigree of the early kings of Adhichchhatra, the capital of the once mighty kingdom of Northern Pañchäla. These inscriptions record their dedication by Ashäâhasena from Ahichchhatra for the use of Kasyapïya Arhats. On the basis of these inscriptions, it can be said that the Jaina monks enjoyed royal patronage during the Áuõga period.

Spread of Jainism

Starting from its original home in Magadha, Jainism had slowly spread to different countries like Kaliñga to the South-east, Mathura and Malva to the West and Deccan and the Tamil lands to South. At the same time, it appears to have lost its hold over Magadha, the land of its origin and grew powerful in the West and the South. After some initial success in winning over royal patronage, which was, in part the cause of its rapid growth and expansion, it soon lost its hold in the North, but retained the support of the middle classes, like merchants and bankers, for a long time. This loss of kingly support in the North, was, however, made good by the favour shown to the religion by some ruling families of the Deccan. By the end of the third century A.D., Jainism had taken firm roots throughout India.

5. THE CHEDI (MAHÄ-MEGHAVÄHANA) DYNASTY OF KALIÑGA (ORISSA)

The realy migration of the Jainas to the country of Kaliõga can be seen from the famous Khäravela inscription of Udayagiri dated second or first century B.C. As this inscription refers this to the removal of a Jaina image from kaliõga to Päûaliputra by the Magadhan king Nanda, it is proved that Jainism was followed in the fourth century B.C. Here the faith took firm root and flourished for a long period.

The Udayagiri cave inscription of Khäravela may be regarded as the ‘Khäravela Charita’ because it gives information about the events of his life. He belonged to the third generation of the Mahämeghavähana dynasty, and he was an offshoot of the Chedi royal family. He is also knwon to be a descendant of the Aila line. Mahäräja Khäravela is one of the most remarkable figures of ancient Indian History. As this inscription starts with the invocation (Mangalä Charaîa–Namo Arahantänam and Namo-Sava Siddhänam, Khäravela, the Chedi ruler, is proved to be the follower of Jainism.

It is possible to determine the date of Khäravela by properly identifying the contemporary rulers of Khäravela mentioned⁴⁶ in this inscription. K.P. JAYASWAL and R.D. BANERJI are inclined to assign him to the first half of the second century B.C. while other scholars like D.C. SIRCAR⁴⁷ place him in the first century B.C. or first century A.D. His title Mahäräja, later script of the inscription, developed Kävya style and sculptures of Mañchapuri prove the late date. The Nanda king is known to have excavated the canal three centuries earlier than Khäravela. As the Nandas held sway over the Magadhan empire in the fourth century B.C., Khäravela, who flourished more than 300 years after Nandaräja, should be assigned to the first century B.C.

Khäravela, while a prince, played different games befitting the young age of the prince with a lovely body and fair brown complexion. He bore the noble and auspicious bodily marks. As to prince Khäravela’s education ability, he became an expert in matters relating to writing, coinage, accounting, administration and procedures.

That Khäravela did marry is beyond any dispute. The very fact that the Mañchapuri cave on the Udayagiri Khaîâagiri was dedicated by the chief queen (Agra-Mahïshi) of Khäravela for the use of Jaina monks in Kaliõga, goes to prove that Khäravela had more than one queen. Again in the seventh year record in the Hathigumpha text, there appears a fragmentary reference to Khäravela’s wife. In the seventh year of his reign, Khäravela’s famous wife of the Vajiraghara obtained