How to know a substance
To identify a substance.
558. How many different ways can a
substance be identified?
There are
four different ways to identify a given substance:
1.
Through it’s Characteristics
(Lakshan).
2.
Through its organ of
knowledge (Praman).
3.
Through a Partial point of
view (Naya) of the substance.
4.
and
by an analysis of truth (Nikshepa).
Characteristic of
a substance.
559. What is meant by the
characteristics (Lakshan)?
The one specific thing, which will identify
a given substance out of many substances, is called a characteristic of that
substance. For example, the consciousness is the characteristic of the
living being.
560. How many types of characteristics
are there?
There are
two types, as follow:
1.
Those related to the
substance (Atmabhut)
2.
Those
nonrelated to the substance (Anatmabhut).
561. What is called the
characteristic related to the substance (Atmabhut
lakshan)?
The characteristics,
which are the integral part of the substance, are called the related
characteristics of the substance, i.e. fire’s characteristic is heat.
562. What is a
nonrelated characteristic of a substance (Anatmabhut
lakshan)?
A characteristic that
is not an integral part of the substance is called a
nonrelated characteristic of the substance. For example, a staff is a
staff bearer’s characteristic but it is not an integral, related
characteristic of the bearer per se.
563. What is a perceived
characteristic (Lakshanabhas)?
A characteristic that has some fault with
it, is called a perceived characteristic.
564. How many faults can be associated
with the characteristic?
There can be three types:
1.
Noncomprehensive fault–
Avyapti.
2.
The fault of including what
is not intended to be included within a proposition –
Ativyapti, and.
3.
An improbable fault–
Ashambhav.
565. How are the
things to be characterized
recognized (Lakshya)?
They are recognized
within a substance whose characteristics have been observed and are called
lakshya.
566. What is called a
noncomprehensive fault? (Avyapti
dosh)
When a characteristic
resides in only some area of a substance, it is called a
noncomprehensive fault. For example while a horn
is a characteristic of some animals, it is not a characteristic of all
animals.
567. What is called an
ativyapti fault?
The fact that a
characteristic is found in a given substance, and can also be found in other
substances is called an ativyapti fault. For
example a characteristic of the cow is its horns. In this example, besides
the cow, the horn is a characteristic in other animals too.
568. What is called
alakshaya?
A substance with a
specific characteristic is called lakshya. The
other substances without that specific characteristic are called
alakshya.
569. What is called improbable (Ashambhav)
fault?
The absence of certain
characteristics within a given substance is called an improbable fault.
Organ of knowledge.
570. What is the organ of knowledge (Praman)?
The true knowledge is called the organ of
knowledge.
571. How many types of
praman are there?
There are two types:
1.
Direct knowledge –
Pratyaksha.
2.
Indirect knowledge –
Paroksha.
572. What is called the direct
knowledge (Pratyaksha)?
When one knows the substance clearly, is
called pratyaksha.
573. How many types of direct knowledge
(Pratyaksha) are there?
There are two types:
1.
Direct knowledge in the
conventional sense – (Samvyavaharik
pratyaksha).
2.
Transcendental knowledge – (Parmarthik
pratyaksha).
574. What constitutes direct knowledge
in the conventional sense (Samvyavaharik
pratyaksha)?
Partial proper
knowledge of a given substance acquired with the help of senses and mind is
called direct knowledge in the conventional sense (Samvyavaharik
pratyaksha).
575. What constitutes the transcendental
knowledge (Parmarthik
pratyaksha)?
The complete proper
knowledge obtained without any help of the senses or the mind constitutes
transcendental knowledge (Parmarthik
pratyaksha).
576. How many types of transcendental
knowledge are there?
There are two types:
1.
Partial perception –
Vikal parmarthik.
2.
Perfect perception –
Sakal parmarthik.
577. What is meant by partial perception
knowledge (Vikal parmarthik)?
The knowledge of the
material substance which occurs without the help of the senses and mind is
called partial perception knowledge (Vikal
parnthik).
578. How many types of partial
perception are there?
There are
two types:
1.
Clairvoyance knowledge (Avadhi
gnan)
2.
Telepathy (Manah
paryah gnan).
579. What is meant by clairvoyance
knowledge (Avadhi gnan)?
The direct knowledge
of the material thing with the limitations of the substance, area, time and
state of being (Dravya,
kshetra, kal, bhav)
is called clairvoyance knowledge.
580. What is telepathy knowledge (Manah
paryah gnan)?
The direct knowledge
of the material thoughts of someone else with the limitation of substance,
area, time and state of being, is called telepathy knowledge.
581. What is called perfect perception
knowledge (Sakal parmarthik)?
The omniscient knowledge is called perfect
perception knowledge.
582. What is called omniscient
knowledge (Keval gnan)?
The knowledge that
knows the past, present and future of all the universal substances at a
given time is called omniscient knowledge (Keval
gnan).
583. What is called indirect knowledge (Paroksha
Praman)?
The partial knowledge
obtained with someone else’s help is called the indirect knowledge (Paroksha
praman)?
584. How many types of indirect
knowledge are there (Paroksha
praman)?
There are five types as follow:
1.
Memory (Smruti)
2.
Recognition (Pratyabhi
gnan)
3.
Logic (Tark)
4.
Inference (Anuman)
5.
Scripture (Agam).
585. What is memory (Smruti)?
To recall substance experienced in the past
is called memory (Smruti).
586. What is recognition (Pratyabhi
gnan)?
The knowledge that
links the memory to things in the present is called recognition (Pratyabhi
gnan). For example, this is the same man that I
saw yesterday.
587. How many types of recognition are
there?
There are many kinds of
recognition. Two are as follow:
1.
Recognition of a unique
type – Ekatva pratyabhi
gnan.
2.
Recognition of an equality
type – Sadasya pratyabhi
gnan.
588. What is the recognition of the
unique type (Ekatva
pratyabhi gnan)?
The knowledge that
shows oneness of the subject of the memory and of the recognition is called
the recognition of the unique type. For example, this is the same man that I
saw yesterday.
589. What is the recognition of the
equality type (Sadasya
pratyabhi gnan)?
Knowledge that distinguishes similarity of
different subjects of the memory and the their
recognition is called the recognition of the equality type (Sadsya
Pratyabhi Gnan). For
example, the cow is similar to a horse.
590. What is logic (Tark)?
The knowledge of
universal concomitance (Vyapti) is called the
logic.
591. What is the universal
concomitance (Vyapti)?
The inherent relationship (Avinabhav
sambandh) among subjects is called universal
concomitance.
592. What is the inherent
relationship (Avinabhav
sambandh)?
Wherever there is the presence of a thing
that proves (Sadhan), then there is always the
presence of things to be proven (Sadhya).
Whenever there is an absence of things to be proven, then there is also an
absence of things that prove. This is called the inherent
relatonship (Avinabhav
sambandh). For example, wherever there is smoke,
there is a fire. Whenever fire is absent, then the smoke is also not
present.
593. What is the thing that proves (Sadhan)?
One that is always accompanied by the
things to be proven (Sadhya) is called the
thing that proves (Sadhan). For example, for
fire, the thing that proves (Sadhan) is the
smoke.
594. What is the thing to be proven (Sadhya)?
The thing which is desirable (Ista),
unobstructed (Abadhit), and not
arrivable at by inference (Asidhdha)
is called the thing to be proven (Sadhya).
595. What is called “desirable” (Ista)?
Desirable (Ista)
is a thing that the plaintiff (Vadi) and the
defendant (Prativadi) both try to obtain.
596. What is unobstructed (Abadhit)?
When a thing cannot be obstructed by any
other standard, it is called unobstructed (Abadhit).
For example, in the fire, coldness is absolutely obstructed. Thus, the
fire cannot be the thing that proves (Sadhya)
for cold.
597. What is the meaning of “not
arrivable at by inference” (Asidhdha)?
The thing, which has not been proven by
any other standard, is called “not arrivable
at by inference” (Asidhdha)?
598. What is called an inference (Anuman)?
With the knowledge of the thing that proves
(Sadhan) and when one then predicts the things
to be proven (Sadhya), it is called inference (Anuman).
599. What is meant by the “apparent
thing that proves” fallacy (Sadhanabhas-hetvabhas)?
When logical reasoning (Hetu)
is associated with a fault to achieve a proof it is called “the apparent
thing that proves” fallacy of logical reason (Sadhanabhas-hetvabhas).
600. How many types of logical
reasoning fallacies (Hetvabhas) are there?
There are four types:
1.
Not
arrivable by inference (Asidhdha).
2.
Opposite (Virudhdha).
3.
Not to the point- uncertain (Anaikantik).
4.
Immaterial- powerless (Akinchitkar).
601. What is meant by “not
arrivable by inference” logical reason fallacy (Asidhdha
Hetvabhas)?
When a factor is certainly absent in the
logical reasoning, or its presence is doubtful, it is called “not
arrivable at by any inference” logical reason
fallacy (Asidhdha Hetvabhas).
For example, spoken words are perceived as factual because they are the
objects of the eyes. Actually, words are the object of the ears. They cannot
be the objects of the eyes. Thus, such an object
of the eyes is called asidhdha
hetvabhas.
602. What is “opposite” logical reason
fallacy (Virudhdha
Hetvabhas)?
A factor which supports the opposite
intended of the things to be proven (Sadhya) is
called an “opposite” logical reason fallacy (Virudhdha
Hetvabhas). For example, words are permanent
because they keep on modifying.
Here the modification is spread transiently
and not through permanency. Thus the modification is an “opposite” logical
reason fallacy of permanency.
603. What is an “uncertain” logical
reason fallacy (Anaikantik
Hetvabhas)?
A logical reason (Hetu)
which can support the side of anything (Paksha),
and which can possibly be in either one side (Sapaksha)
or on an opposite side (Vipaksha) is called an
“uncertain” logical reason fallacy (Anaikantik
Hetvabhas).
For example, in this room there is smoke
because it contains fire.
Here the fire is the logical reason and it
is paksha, sapaksha
and vipaksha. That is why it is called an
“uncertain” logical reason fallacy.
604. What is meant by “to take sides
of anything” (Paksha)?
Wherever there is a possibility of
sadhya, to remain in the same place, it is
called paksha. For example, the room in question
number 603, is the paksha.
605. What is called “the possibility
of one side” (Sapaksha)?
Certainly when logical
reasoning is present, it is called sapaksha.
For example, the smoke is possibly present
in the room where there is a wet log placed on
the fire.
606. What is called “the possibility
of the opposite side” (Vipakasha)?
Where there is the absence of logical
reasoning, then it is called vipakasha.
For example, the
absence of smoke from a red-hot iron.
607. What are “immaterial” logical
reason fallacies (Akitchitkar
Hetvabhas)?
Logical reasoning through which it is
impossible to attain any conclusion is called an “immaterial” logical reason
fallacy (Akitchitkar
Hetvabhas).
608. How many types of “immaterial”
logical reasoning fallacies (Akinchitkar
Hetvabhas) are there?
There are two types:
1.
Accomplishable logical
reasoning (Sidhdha sadhan)
2.
Obstructing object (Badhit
vishaya).
609. What is “accomplishable
logical reason” (Sidhdha
Sadhan)?
The logical reason that can be accomplished
is called sidhdha sadhan.
For example, the fire is hot because the touch sense establishes it that
way.
610. What is an “obstructing object”
logical reason of fallacy (Badhit
Vishaya Hetvabhas)?
It is the one that acts as a hindrance in
the accomplishment of the logical reason.
611. How many types of “obstructing
object” logical reasons of fallacy are there? (Badhit
Vishaya Hetvabhas)
There are many types to include:
·
Direct obstruction (Pratyaksha
badhit).
·
Inference obstruction (Anuman
badhit).
·
Scripture obstruction (Agam
badhit).
·
One’s own spoken word obstruction (Swavachan
badhit).
612. What is “direct
obstruction” (Pratyaksha
badhit)?
“Direct obstruction” occurs when there is a
direct obstruction in achieving the goal. For example, to reason that fire
is cold because it is a substance, is a direct obstruction of fallacy since
“cold” is not a factor in fire.
613. What is an “inference
obstruction” (Amuman
Badhit)?
When there is an inferential obstruction in
achieving the goal, then it is called inferential obstruction fallacy (anuman
badhit hetvabhas).
Someone claims to make grass, because it is an act. Here this inference is
obstructive because someone cannot make grass. Therefore it is not due to
someone’s act.
614. What is “scripture
obstruction” (Agam Badhit)?
When there is scriptural obstruction in
achieving the goal, then it is called scripture obstruction. For example, an
inauspicious activity gives happiness, because whatever activities are
there, can produce happiness. For example auspicious act also produced
happiness.
Here the scripture obstruction exists
because in the scripture it says that the inauspicious activities are what
produces unhappiness.
615. What is “one’s
own spoken words” obstruction (Swavachan
Badhit)?
When there is obstruction due to one’s own
spoken words, then it is called one’s own spoken words obstruction. For
example, my mother claims to be childless however she does enter a
relationship with a man and becomes pregnant. However later fetus is
aborted.
616. How many types of inference are
there (Anuman)?
There are five types:
1.
Proposition (Pratigna)
2.
Reason (Hetu)
3.
Example (Drastant)
4.
Application (Upnaya)
5.
Conclusion (Nigamana).
617. What is meant by inference by
proposition (Pratigna)?
To structure a reference about a place for
things to be proven (Sadhya) is called a
proposition. For example, the fire is in this mountain.
618. What is
reasoning (Hetu)?
To make explainations
about things that prove (Sadhya) is called
reasoning. For example, because there is smoke there is fire.
619. What is called
udaharan?
Udaharan
means to talk about the example, which has invariable concomitance (Vyapti).
For example, whenever there is smoke, there is fire. For example in a
kitchen, whenever there is no fire, there is no visible smoke, no visible
smoke is also true in an example of a pond.
620. What is an example (Drastant)?
The example is a statement in which there
is the presence of things to be proven and things that prove (Sadhya
and Sadan); or, the absence of both (i.e.,
kitchen and pond example in #619).
621. How many types of examples (Drastant)
are there?
Two types:
1.
Example of logical connection
of cause and effect (Anvay
drastant).
2.
Example of logical connection
and disconnection (Vyatirek
drastant).
622. What is called the example of
logical connection of cause and effect (Anvay
drastant)?
It is the one in which the presence of
sadhya is shown with the presence of
sadhan. For example, smoke is present and also
fire is present in the kitchen.
623. What is called the example of
logical connection and disconnection (Vyatirek
drastant)?
It is the one in which there is an absence
of sadhya, as well as an absence of
sadhan. For example there is an absence of smoke
because there is an absence of fire in the pond.
624. What is “application” (Upnaya)?
Through application, there is
a similarity present (Paksha)
for the things that proves (Sadhan). For
example, the mountain has the same kind of smoke as seen in the kitchen.
625. What is called the conclusion (Nigamana)?
To state a proposition is proven after
showing its end result is called the conclusion. For example, for these
reasons that is why this mountain also contains the fire.
626. How many types of logical reason
(Hetu) are there?
There are three, as
follows:
1.
Only the logical connection
of cause and effect (Keval
anvayi hetu).
2.
Only the logical connection
and disconnection (Keval
vyatirek).
3.
Logical connection of cause
and effect and connection and disconnection (Anvayi
vyatireki).
627. What is called the logical reason
of cause and effect (Keval
anvayi hetu)?
Logical reasoning in which both the cause
and effect are shown is called keval
anvayi hetu.
The soul maintains his own existence
because of his own self. That is why the soul has many
foldednesses (Anekant).
Therefore, any substance that maintains its existence by itself has such
foldedness. Therefore matter has
many foldednesses.
628. What is meant by the logical
reason of connection and disconnection (Keval
vyatirek)?
Here there exists an example of connection
and disconnection. For example, the living body can breathe, because it has
presence of the soul. Whenever there is no soul, no respiration can be seen.
A table therefore cannot breathe.
629. What is logical reasoning with
cause and effect, as well as connection and disconnection (Anvayi
vyatireki hetu)?
This can be explain
through examples of both types: cause and effect (Anvayi)
and connection and disconnection (Vyatireki).
For example, there is fire because there is smoke in the mountain. Thus,
wherever there is smoke, there is fire; e.g. as in the kitchen. Whenever
there is no fire, there is no smoke, e.g. as in the pond.
630. What is called scriptural organ
of knowledge (Agam praman)?
The knowledge obtained from the direction
given by the trustworthy soul (Apta) is called a
scriptural organ of knowledge (Agam
praman).
631. What is called the trustworthy
soul (Apta)?
The all knowing omniscient lord delivers
the best beneficial spiritual instruction. He is called the
trustworthiest soul.
632. What is the subject of organ of
knowledge?
The organ of knowledge includes the
knowledges of both the common and specific
natures of a substance (Samanya and
vishesh).
633. What is called the specific knowledge(Vishesh)?
The knowledge of a substance from a
specific point of view is called the specific knowledge (Vishesh
Gnan).
634. How many types of specific
knowledges are there?
There are two types:
1.
Coextensive specific
knowledge (Sahabhavi
vishesha)
2.
Specific knowledge occurring
in succession (Krambhavi
vishesha).
635. What is coextensive specific
knowledge (Sahabhavi
vishesha)?
It is specific knowledge of the things that
are present in each and every part of a substance and also present in any
condition of that substance. This is also called the attributes (Guna)
of a substance.
636. What is the specific knowledge
occurring in succession (Krambhavi
vishesha)?
It is specific knowledge of things, which
occurs in succession in a substance. This is also known as modes (Paryay)
of a substance.
637. What is a pseudo-organ of
knowledge (Pramanabhas)?
The wrong knowledge (Mithya
gnan) is called the apparent organ of knowledge
or pseudo-organ of knowledge.
638. How many types of
pramanabhas are there?
There are three types,
as follow:
1.
Indecision (Sanshaya).
2.
Erroneous cognition (Viparaya).
3.
Inconclusiveness (Anadhyavasaya).
639. What is indecision (Sanshaya)?
Is it this or is it
that? Some sort of mutual contradictory dual form of knowledge is called
indecision. For example, is this shell or silver?
640. What is called erroneous
cognition (Viparayaya)?
The form of knowledge
which is contradictory to the intrinsic nature of the substance is termed
erroneous cognition (Viparayaya), e.g. to even
consider shell as silver.
641. What is inconclusiveness (Anadhyavasaya)?
“Something” is there.
This type of indeterminative form of thought is
called inconclusiveness (Anadhyavasaya). For
example, one is not able to perceive precisely the dry grass coming under
ones feet while walking.
Partial point of
view.
642. What is meant by a partial point of
view (Naya)?
The knowledge of only
a part of a substance is called a partial point of view (Naya).
643. How many types of partial points
of view (Naya) are there?
There are two types:
1.
Absolute point of view (Nischaya
naya)
2.
Practical point of view (Vyavahar
naya).
644. What is known as the absolute
point of view (Nischaya
naya)?
The true knowledge of
a part of a substance is called the absolute point of view. For example, the
pot made of clay is to be understood as a clay pot.
645. What is called the practical
point of view (Vyavahar
naya)?
·
Considering one substance from
another from the perspective of an instrumental
cause.e.g. The clay pot could be known as butter pot. Here the butter
stays in the clay pot, so now it is known as a butter pot.
·
To consider one complete substance
as comprised of divided form of knowledge.
·
The practical point of view is
dependent on other substances.
646. How many types of absolute points
of view (Nischaya Naya)
are there?
There are two types:
1.
Substantial point of view (Dravyarthik
naya).
2.
Modification point of view (Paryayarthik
naya).
647. What is the substantial point of
view (Dravyarthik naya)?
A point of view that
considers the substance as a whole and gives each attribute and the modes,
their subsidiary status, is called the substantial point of view.
648. What is the modification point of
view (Paryayarthik naya)?
The
point of view that considers the attributes and modes of
a substance as a principle subject, and also consider its substantial
consideration as subsidiary status, is known as modification point of view.
649. How many types of substantial
points of view are there?
There are three types:
1.
Figurative point of view (Naigam
naya).
2.
Collective point of view (Sangraha
naya).
3.
Distributive point of view (Vyavahar
naya).
650. What is meant by the figurative
point of view (Naigam
naya)?
In the figurative
point of view, one substance is made primary and the other substances become
secondary. After that, it distinguishes between both of them as different or
as unique.
It deals with the
intention of the subject.
One person is cleaning
the rice grains. Someone asks what he is doing. He says he is cooking rice.
Here although there is
no difference shown between uncleaned rice
grains and cooked rice; his intention of cooking the rice is shown.
651. What is the collective point of
view (Sangraha naya)?
In this point of view,
one is given a subsidiary status and considers different subjects as unique.
For example when one
says “living being” he means he is talking about all the living beings to
include one to five sensed living beings.
652. What is the distributive point of
view (Vyavahar naya)?
In this point of view,
one draws distinctions among substances, which are accepted as unique in the
collective point of view.
For example, living
beings can be divided into liberated souls and
transmigratory souls, etc.
653. How many types of modification
points of view are there (Paryayarthik
Naya)?
There are four as follow:
1.
Linear point of view (Rujusutra
naya).
2.
Literal point of view (Sabda
naya).
3.
Etymological point of view (Sambhirudhdha
naya).
4.
Determinant point of view (Evambhu
naya).
654. What is a linear point of view (Rujusutra
naya)?
In this point of view,
one accepts only the present mode of a substance. The past and the future
modes are not taken into consideration.
655. What is meant by a literal point
of view (Sabda naya)?
In the literal point
of view, one uses words at their exact face value to signify the real nature
of things. Each word has a particular meaning. In the literal point of view,
changing the gender, number, word ending or tense of a word, is thought to
change its meaning and therefore change the object to which it refers.
For example,
Dara is a masculine gender in Gujarati.
Bharya is a feminized gender in Gujarati.
Kalatra is a neutral gender in Gujarati.
They all related to
woman, but the literal point of view will see those three words as
separately and distinct.
656. What is an etymological point of
view (Sambhirudhdha naya)?
According to the
etymological point of view, each word has its own meaning. There is only one
word for one meaning. No two words mean the same thing. In the literal point
of view, the differences in the meaning of synonymous words are accepted,
when they have different tense, different gender, etc., but the differences
in their meaning are not accepted when they have the same tense, same
gender, etc. For example, Raja, Nrup and
Dhrupah ( Indian
words) all of these words mean king. They express the same thing and meaning
in the literal point of view. All three words are of the same masculine
gender. In the etymological point of view, all three words have subtle
differences in meaning. Therefore, even though they are synonymous words
having the same tense, gender, etc., they do not mean the same thing.
657. What is the determinant point of
view (Evambhu naya)?
The determinant point
of view recognizes only the action implied by the root meaning of the word.
To be real, the object must satisfy the activity meant by the work.
For example, from the
etymological point of view, the different words in the same gender, tense,
etc., will be accepted with their different meanings, but in the determinant
point of view, each word is only accepted when the object is performing that
particular act denoted by the name. For example, Raja will be called raja
only when royal insignia decorate him. He will be called
Nrup only when he is fighting in a war to
protect his people. He will be called Dhrupah
only when he is maintaining the kingdom and making it prosperous.
658. How many types of practical point
of view (Vyavahar Naya-
Upnaya) are there?
There are three types, as follow:
1.
Pure synthetic practical
point of view (Sadbhut
vyavarhar naya).
2.
Impure synthetic practical
point of view (Asadbhut
vyavahar naya).
3.
Metaphorical impure synthetic
practice point of view (Upcharit
asadbhut vyavahar
naya)?
659. What is meant by the pure synthetic
practical point of view (Sadbhut
vyavahar naya)?
The pure synthetic
practical point of view deals with the whole unbroken substance. Here the
knowledge of the whole unbroken substance is achieved by dividing its
content. For example, the soul has empirical knowledge and omniscient
knowledge, etc. In this example, one tries to understand the whole unique
nature of the soul by artificially deviding its
various attributes.
660. What is an impure synthetic
practical point of view (Asadbhut
vyavahar naya)?
Here the knowledge of
two attached substances is considered as belonging to one. For example, this
body is mine, or to call the clay pot as a butter pot.
661. (A). What is meant by a
metaphorical impure synthetic practical point of view (Upcharit
asadbhut vyavahar
naya)?
This is explained when knowledge of two
entirely different substances is considered as identical to one only. For
example, horse, elephant and , house belong to
me.
661. (B). What is called the theory
of multiplicity point of view?
In a substance when there is the presence
of modes of two opposite attributes occurring at the same times it is called
a multiplicity point of view.
For example, the soul exists because of
self and not because of some other outside entity. Both are modes of
opposite attributes, residing together in a given substance, which
illustrates the theory of multifoldedness.
Analysis of the truth.
662. What is called analysis of the
truth (Nikshepa)?
By proper reasoning,
one obtains the right knowledge. The truth is then known in precision and
with clarity.
663. How many different way can the
truth be analysed?
The truth now is known by four different ways:
1.
Name (Nam).
2.
Symbol (Sthapana).
3.
Potentiality (Dravaya).
4.
Actuality (Bhav).