There have been conflicting opinions as to how the
ascetic practice and the monastic vows originated. Buehler held that most
of the special directions for the discipline of the Jaina ascetic are
copies, and often exaggerated copies, of the Brahminical rules for
penitents. The outward marks of the order closely resemble those of a
Sanyasin'.[19] Jacobi seems to support this view when he said 'Monastic
order of the Jainas and the Buddhists though copied from Brahmana were
chiefly and originally intended for Kshatriyas."[20] This view was
presented in the early stages of Indological research but it is difficult
to be accepted. What we call Indian philosophy is a synthesis of the
Sramana and the Brahmana currents of thoughts. The sramana cult which was
primarily ascetic in nature was pre-Aryan. And we should no more assess
the Samkhya Jaina, Buddhist and Ajivaka tenets as mere perverted
continuation of stray thoughts selected at random from the Upanisadic bed
of Aryan thought currents". [21] Dr. Upadhye calls this Pre-Aryan current
of thought as 'Magadhan religion.'
All cannot renounce the world, nor is it desirable.
Most men have to live in this world and work for their spiritual salvation
while engaged in daily routine of empirical life. They are the,
householders (sravakas). They cannot practice rigorous discipline of an
ascetic. They have to practice the vows with less rigour, as far as
possible, still without sacrificing the fundamental spirit of the Vratas.
The ethical code for the layman is twelve fold consisting of 1) five
Vratas which are common for the ascetic and the householder, except for
the fact they have to be practiced with less rigour without sacrificing
the spirit of righteousness and the main goal of self-realization. Great
physical and moral advantages accrue from the observation of vows. It
keeps the body and mind healthy and leads one in the direction of
maintaining moral strength ultimately to lead to moksa. The vows practiced
by the layman are the anuvratas (lesser vows). In addition to 1) five
anuvratas he has to practice 2) three gunavratas and 3) four siksavratas.
We may mention some of the aticaras (infractions) of
the anuvratas. Some of the aticaras of vrata are:
1. Ahimsa: i) bandha tying up. keeping in captivity men
and beasts. However the restraining of cattle by means of ropes and
restriction on our children for corrections may be permitted.[22] So may a
thief be bound. ii) vadha (beating): It refers to wanton and merciless
whipping of animals out of anger and aroused by other passions, although
some exceptions like mild beating, pulling the ears or slapping for
correction are permissible. iii) chavi-ccheda: This applies to acts of
injury to the body with sword or sharp instrument. Operations by a
physician would be exceptions.[23] iv) atibhararopana: It refers to heavy
and merciless loading of beasts by a burden greater than they can bear.
Certain types of occupations have been tabooed for a Jaina layman. v)
bhakta-pana-vyavaccheda: It refers to making the animal suffer from hunger
and thirst for no reason out of anger or negligence. The context and the
implication;, of ahimsa vrata are much wider than the aticaras indicate.
We have, therefore, added in the end a critique of ahimsa in the light of
its philosophical justification.
2. Satya vrata (truth-speaking) has also a wide
connotation. It has been interpreted as abstention from untruth spoken
out of passion, and even from truth if it leads to the destruction of the
living being.[24] We may mention some of the infraction of this Vrata . i)
Sahasabhyakhyana: It consists in casually or intentionally imputing false
charges against a person as: `he is a thief, or an adulterer'. Friends of
Othello committed this grievous crime and sin against Desdemona even if it
were in jest. ii) Svadara mantra bheda: It consists in divulging to others
what has been said by one's wife in confidence under special
circumstances.[25] iii) Mrsopadesa . It refers to perverse teaching and
advice leading to evil consequences. iv) Kutalekhakarana is preparing a
false document like forgery etc.
3. Asteyavrata forbids us to commit theft or even to
take others' articles not specifically meant for us. It forbids us from i)
accepting stolen articles at cheaper rates, ii) instigating other to
steal, iii) acquiring property in a country which is hostile to our own.
Even grass or wood obtained under such circumstances must be regarded as
stolen.[26] Even transgressing the frontiers forbidden by the State is an
infraction of this vow.[27] Black market is covert under this aticara. iv)
kuta-tula-kuta mana: using false weights and measures and taking
exorbitant interest on loans is an infraction of this vow.
These Aticaras are mainly concerned as a warning to the
community in which individuals and groups are likely to violate the five
vows here and there. Similar infractions of this Vrata have been mentioned
with reference to officials as well in the State Corrupt officials are
also to be considered as thieves.[4]
4. Brahma-vrata is important in Jaina ethics. It has
been considered from the points of view of personal efforts for salvation
and of social health. Detailed classification of the vows and the
infractions have been worked out. In their analysis we find psychological
acumen. The Vrata has negative and positive aspects. In the negative
aspect a householder has to abstain from sexual contact with other's wife
(aparadara-gamana), and positively he has to be satisfied with his own
wife. He cannot even arrange marriages of other women, except in the case
of his own children. He should avoid sex literature and sex brooding. The
aticara of this Vrata cover most aspects of sexual deviation including
that with the lower animals and even with inanimate objects like the
figures of women. From the earliest days of Jainism, the horror of incest
has been constantly felt, as described by Haribhadra,[29] while mentioning
the disastrous consequences of the violation of this.
5. Aparigraha-vrata (the vow of non-possession) is
perhaps the most important of the Vratas in the present context of
society. As a Mahavrata it is required of a Muni to give up every thing
that leads to attachment except perhaps in some cases, a piece of cloth, a
kamandalu and a bunch of feathers. He must, avoid both external (bahya)
and internal (antara) possession (parigraha). As an Anuvrata, it
emphasises nonattachment. One who accumulates property more than required
for him, transgresses this Vrata. Parigraha (possession) is something
explained as a sort of the fascination for material possession. It is the
expression of acquisitive instinct which needs to be curbed or else it
feeds in what it gets. A son's greed for material possession will lead to
ignore his father; and countless evil consequences follow.[30] If only we
know the importance of this Vrata, in the Socratic sense of the word
'know', we would solve most of the problems of social evil. The
Gunavratas and the giksavr been mentioned with variations. The Gunavratas
are
ii) bhogopaohogoparimona and iii) anarthadandavrata.
Digvrata restricts the movements in different directions. The purpose is
to reduce the possibility of committing violence, and this is to be
achieved by circumscribing the area in which injury to the living can be
committed. For example, one is forbidden to climb a mountain or a top of
a tree, descend into a well or underground storage of a village to travel
beyond a stipulated limit by the Acaryas, and to move at random. There
would be infractions of the vow. In the Ratnakarandaka, Digvrata is
defined as the resolve to desist from injury by circumscribing one' range
of movement. As to the limits of time, it is to be practiced until
death.[31] The Bhogopabhoga-parimana-vrata forbids or limits one in the
use of 'consumable' goods like food and durable goods like furniture in
the house. The Anarthadanda vrata restricts an individual from certain
activities, from harmful professions and trades because they would lead to
harmful activities which serve no purpose. Four types of Anarthadanda are
mentioned in the svetambara texts, while Digambaras have five. We have
tried to avoid the discrepancies in the presentation of the svetambara and
the Digambara writers on the different problems as they are largely
concerned with minor details. The five types of Anarthadanda are:
i)apadhyana (evil concentration like arta-dhyana and raudra dhyana; ii)
pramadacaritra (negligent mischief or addiction to vices like alcoholism
and gambling). It also includes witnessing dancing. sex displays,
cock-fighting and other combats of animals. It may include many others
bringing about incitement of excessive instinctive activity; iii)
himsapradana (encouraging injury to life in any form). It forbids us from
supplying poison, weapon: fire, rope, swords and other articles for
destruction of life.[32] iv) papopadesa (sinful advice) like instruction
in evil trade. It is also mentioned that sometimes such advice, like
giving instructions to the farmer to plough when the rains are on, cannot
be avoided when a question of being helpful is involved but it should
never be given mere out of garrulity. v) duh-sruti (bad reading); it
consists in reading kamasastra, sex and spicy literature including yellow
journalism and listening to the faults of others. It is the study of works
that disturb and spoil the minds with harmful thoughts, worldly
attachments, perverse attitude and excitement of passions.[34]
Coming to the siksavratas the sravaka has to practice
four of them: i) samayika, ii) dcsavakasika iii) prosadhopavasa, and iv)
atithi-.samvi-bhaga. Samayika is one of the important practices for the
layman; and it is one of the six avasyakas (necessities) for the layman
and also for the ascetic for whom it has to be practiced lifelong. It
consists in the attainment of equanimity and tranquility of mind.[35] It
is a process of becoming one (ekatvagamana), of fusion of body and mind
and speech with the Atman.[36] Samayika may be performed in one's own
house or in a temple, in the presence of Guru or in a specially built
hall, according to the needs of the time and individual. Sometimes a
distinction is made between the ordinary laymen, affluent men, and men of
official status. Special procedure for Sarnayika is laid down with the
intention of increasing the prestige of the Jaina community by emphasizing
the fact that he has adhered to the sacred doctrine .[37] In performing
the Samayika one should observe the five samitis and three Guptis and
avoid all harmful speech. He should recite pratyakhyana avoiding harmful
actions and pratikramana expressing remorse for past deeds and
pray(alocana) that whatever acts in speech, mind and body made by him in
the past may be atoned for. It is to seek forgiveness for what has been
done so far. During the period of samayika the layman becomes like an
ascetic. Samantabhadra shows that a layman performing samayika is like an
ascetic draped in clothes,[39] although this likeness is only apparent
like the description of a woman as candramukhi.[40] Samayika has to be
performed at regular intervals of the day. The object of this practice is
to gain mental equanimity surcharged with righteousness. Desavakasikavrata
is a modified version of Digvrata. It restricts the movement of an
individual to a house or village or a part thereof for a period varying
from a muhurta (about 45 minutes) to a few days or even a couple of
months. The basic idea in such restriction of movement seems to be that it
would create mental preparedness for the practice of Vratas more
rigorously almost leading to the Mahavrata temporarily in the state of an
ascetic. Prosadhopavasa-vrata enjoins one to fast at regular intervals in
the month, say on the eighth (astami) and fourteenth day (caturdasi)[42].
One should avoid adornment of the body including use of garlands, perfumes
etc. One should abstain from engaging one self in worldly duties. This is
an important step in the direction of mental purification.
Danavrata covers the most important sing]e element in
the practice of religion, for without alms-giving by the laity, there
could be no ascetics; and Dharma could not easily be preserved and
continued.[43] It is also termed as atithisamvibhaga-vrata or paying due
respects to the guest. Specific injunctions have been given regarding the
qualifications of an atithi and the mode of giving alms.[44] Varied
interpretations have been possible, the Sadhu or monk being, accepted as
the best atithi as he is charged with imparting, religious instruction. ln
giving alms one should consider the following, five factors: i) patra (the
recepient), ii) datr .(giver), iii) datavya (the object given), iv)
dana-vidhi (the manner of giving and v) danaphala (the result of giving
alms.,[2]. We should consider the place and time while giving alms. Due
respect should be given to the recepient and the giver should be free from
any taints of passions. He should give with full faith in the act of
giving. Act of charity has no ethical value, if it is to be done with
questionable motives. If it is to be done out of anger or filled with
maudlin sentiments of pity, it should not be considered to be of usual
significance. Nor is it possible to justify the act of charity if it were
not to produce any tangible welcome result. Thus the ends and means must
justify each other. The Jainas present a synthetic picture of the problem
of motive and intention in the act of righteousness. The spirit of
Anekanta forbids us to take a partial view emphasising either the motive
of action or merely the consequences. However, in early days, dana to
ascetics formed an important duty of laymen. Food and shelter and books
are to be supplied to tbe monks, so that they can devote themselves to
study and meditation. Concentration (dhyana) is not possible without the
minimum necessary physical comfort. In addition to dana to the ascetics it
is good to do charity to the distressed, strangers from other lands, to
the lowliest and the lost. This is karuna-dana. Above all dana nullifies
greed and acquisitiveness, and acquisitiveness is a manifestation of himsa.
And dana gives its unfailing fruits. Paradoxically enough the layman
charges himself with restrictions exceeding in number than those accepted
by the monk. This is due to the large diversity of the evil life in which
the layman still stands.[45]
So far, we have briefly mentioned the twelve conditions
of a layman if he is to be a pious sravaka and a good citizen. To these
twelve may be added Samlekhana as Vrata which is sometimes included as one
of the siksavratas. It is not restricted to the ascetics only. The lay
followers of religion may take Samlekhana in the higher stages of their
spiritual development. In fact it is regarded as the normal conclusion of
one's life except where death makes it impossible to take this vow.[46]
With a view to giving a philosophical justification of Samlekhana we add
in the end a note on Samlekhana.
