The end as Moksa -- need for physical and mental discipline -- Jaina Yoga
as compared with Patanjali Yoga -- stages of Yoga -- Dhyana -- types of
Dhyana -- psychological analysis of Dhyana -- Yoga and Sivayoga compared
-- Gunasthana as stages in the spiritual progress -- analysis of fourteen
Gunasthanas -- the final stage � Jaina Mysticism.
I. Moksa is the ideal of life. Supernormal experiences,
like the yogaja-pratyaksa, arsa jnana, and avadhi, manahparyaya are only
incidental. Kevala is symptomatic of the realization of the consummate end
of life. Moksa is to be realized through self-discipline in the affective,
the cognitive and conative sense. Samyag-caritra is as important as
Samyagdarsana and jnana. The way to self-realization is primarily
ethical. If deliverance is to be achieved, the lower matter is to be
subdued by the higher spirit. When the soul is free from the weight which
keeps it down, it rises to the top of the universe where the liberated
dwell. The radical conversion of the inner man is the way to freedom."[1]
The Jainas were aware that physical and mental
discipline are-necessary conditions of moral discipline. Knouledge and
faith are preliminary steps on the path of self-realization. Ordinary
sources of knowledge are not adequate to comprehend the nature of truth.
Reason fails here. Kant shoued that categories of understanding are
fraught with antinomies. One has to transcend reason and seek the truth in
the supernormal forms of experience. Implicit faith in the truth to be
sought is necessary. It is the starting point of self-realization.
Samkara's prescription of the four qualifications of a student of
philosophy as stated in the commentary on the first Sutra of the Vedanta
Sutra, is very pertinent in the case of those who seek the truth. There
are different processes which lead us from faith to the reatization of the
final end. Meditation (dhyana) is an important factor in this process. One
cannot grasp the truth unless one meditates on it; and one cannot realize
it unless one grasps it. Meditation on the nature of the Self is the
highest form of Dhyana. One reaches the stage of mieditation on the self
when one is free from passions and is self-controlled, self-control is in
turn, possible through the practice of physical and mental discipline.
Thus the ancient Indian philosophers developed a science of self-realisation
called Yoga. They have been in general agreement regarding the principles
and practice of Yoga. The Yoga prescribed by Patanjali regards moral and
physical discipline to be indispensable preliminaries to the spiritual
progress. The Jainas are in agreement with the fundamental principles and
practice of this system. Among the Jaina authors Haribhadra gives a
comparative study o� Yoga in his works. The .Jnananava of Subhacandra and
the Yoga-sastra of Hemacandra are valuable contributions to the study a�
Yoga as a science of spiritual progress.
II. In ancient India, Yoga was a science of
self-realization. The word occurs in Rgveda meaning 'bringing about
connection'. In the Atharva-veda it is stated that supernatural powers are
attained by the ascetic practices'.[2] Later it was used in the sense of
yoking a horse. The senses have been compared to the unbridled horses and
Yoga is the means of controlling the horses[3]. In the Jaina literature,
Haribhadra defines Yoga as that which leads one to emancipation', and the
terms dhyana and samadhi were more in vogue than yoga. It is only in the
Yoga-sutra of Patanjali that we find the proper location of Dhyana in the
whole process called Yoga[5]. However, Patanjali probably did not start
the Yoga school, but he must have collected the different forms of
practices and gleaned the diverse ideas which were and could be associated
with Yogas.[6] Yoga, as we see now, is to be cosidered as a fully
developed science of self-realization.
The Yogatattva Upanisad mentions four types of Yoga:
1) Hathayoga is one in which the primary aim is to control bodily
activities. 2) Mantra-yoga aims at healing the diseased by means of mantra
or incantations of certain esoteric hymns. It is based on the influence of
suggession as psychological factor. 3) Layayoga is based on the
physiological analysis of human organism. The aim is to effect
concentration on an image through the Mantras and to be absorbed and lost
in them. 4) The last is the Rajayoga. It is Pitanjala Yoga. Its aim is
higher; and it consists in achieving spiritual beatitude, though bodily
control is a part of Patanjati's Yoga. According to S. Dasagupta, the
Yoga practices grew in accordance with the doctrines of the Saiva and
Sakta schools and assumed a peculiar form as the Mantrayoga. They grew in
another direction as Hathayoga through constant practices of nervous
exercises and produced mystical and magical feats.[7] The influence of
these practices in the development of Tantra was also great. Jaigisavya in
his Dharmasastra mentions different parts of the body like heart, tip of
the nose, palate, forehead and the centre of the brain as centres of
memory where, concentration can be made. [8]
Moral discipline is a necessary condition for the
practice of Yoga leading to spiritual realization. The purpose of moral
discipline ls to remove the bondage due to Karma. The Jaina theory of
morality is centred round the principle of ahimsa, non-violence.
Patanjali also gives prominence to nonviolence in moral discipline. The
Jainas have distinguished two levels in the practice of morality: i) for
the lay follower (sravaka), and ii) for the ascetic (muni.). However, some
general principles are embodied in their theory of morality, Five Vratas
(vows) are to be practiced more rigorously by the Muni bnt with less
rigour by the layman. In the former case they are called Mahavratasr and
in the latter Anuvratas. The five vows are: i) ahimsa. (nonviolence), ii)
satya, (truth, iii) asteya (non-stealing), iv) brahmacarva (celibacy) and
v) aparigraha (abstinence from personal possessions.[9] A number of ways
have been prescribed for the observation of the vows. For instance,
regulation of movement (iryasamiti)? and control of thought (manogupti)
are prescribed for the practice of non-violence. What is important is the
cultivation of equanimity and indifference to the things of the world.
Friendship(maitri) right understanding (pramoda) compassion (karunyai and
indifference towards evil (madhyasthya)are qualities seeking self-realisation,[10]
This in brief is the moral practice as a background to self-realization.
In the Yoga Sutra, yama and niyama are the ethical preparations for Yoga,
Without this moral training , practice of Yoga will not succeed. Yama is
negative in value and Niyama gives the code of observances. The five vows
mentioned by the Jainas are also given by Patanjali.[11] The Yama is
universal validity regardless of differences of caste and country, age and
condition.[12] Niyama is for self-purification. The observances are
austerity (tapas), contentment (samtosa), purification (sauca) and
,devotion to God (Isvarapranidhana). By practising Yama and Niyama one
develops vairagya or detachment and freedom from desires. It may be noted
that surrender to God is not an end in itself. It is only to be means to
the attainment of the proper conditions for self realization. In this
sense, Patanjali's Yoga is a scientific discipline. The idea of God is a
useful hypothesis which give a focus, a pulley ring as it were, on, which
the weight of consciousness can be lifted.[13] Similarly for Haribhadra,
Yoga consists of religious activity so far as it leads one to final
emancipation, though there is no place for God in Jainism. Haribhadra
gives prominence to five types of practices in Yoga: i) sthana. (proper
posture) ii urna (correct utterance or sound, iii) artha (proper
understanding and iv) alambana(concentration, of abstract attributes of
Tirthakara The first two of these are external activities preparatory to
the, practice of concentration. The last three are inner activity (jnana
Yoga). Those who have reached the fifth stage of Gunaasthana (spiritual
progress, viz., Desaaviratasamyagdrsti, can practice Yoga Sthana and Urna
are qualifying conditions for practising Dhyana (concentration)[15].The
Jnanarnava describes the conditions of Asana. A selfcontrolled man may
select a suitable place, like the top of mountain, the bank of a river,
etc. for the practice of concentration. Some asanas like paryarika, vira,
subha and kamala are said to be most suitable. The object of an asana is
to enable one to be free from physical discomfort and the conquest mental
distraction.[16]
Similarly,pranayama is a preparation for the
concentration of mind. Subhacandra, like Patanjali realised the
importance of Pranayama. Three forms of Pranayama were suggested: i)
Puraka ii) Kumbhaka and iii) Recaka.[17] ' Pratyahara is given an
important place in the stages of Yoga. Here the senses are withdrawn from
the external object and fixed on the internal function.[18]
However, the ethical preparation, asana, pranayama, and pratyahara are
only accessories to Yoga and not themselves elements of it.[19]
ln the practice of Dhyana, the first stage is concentration on the image
of a Tirthakara. This is the concrete symbol for concentration. After
achieving steadfastness in this concentration, one should practice
concentration on the abstract qualities of a Tlrthankara.The practice of
Yoga is closely connected with the various stages of spiritual realization
(gunasthana). Dhyana ls in its primary stage in the seventh Gunasthana
apramatta-samyata). The urge to self-realization leads us to the eighth
stage of Gunasthana, called Apurva-karana: greater self-control and a
more definite progress on the path of self-realization are possible in
this stage. Steadfastness of concentration gradually develops till one
reaches the twelfth stage of (gunasthana. called ksina-moha in which the
passions are altogether subdued. ln this stage, the transcendental self is
possible to be realized.[20] We have. here, analambana yoga.
This is the state of omniscience. It is often compared to the
asampra-jnata-samadhi of Patanjali.[21] Still, there is a
higher stage of self realization. In the fourteenth stage of Gunasthana
called ayoga-kevali all activity is stopped; and the soul attains final
emancipation. It is analogous to the dharmamegha of the Patanjali's
system, to the amrtatman of another system and to the para of still
another.[22]
As one goes ascending in the stages of self-realization
and the practice of yoga, one gradually develops the perspective of truth
(drsti). This gradual development has been classified into eight stages:
mitra, tara, bala, dipra, sthira, kanta, prabha and para. The eight drstis
are compared to the eigbtfold stages (astanga of Patanjali's Yoga.[23] As
we go higher in the stages of Drsti the perspective of truth becomes
clearer; and, finally, in the last stage one reaches the Samadhi, the
consummation of Dhyana.
Practice of Yoga may be actuated by i) love ( prtti.
ii) rev rence (bhakti). iii) duty prescribed by scriptures (agama) and iv)
no consideration (asamga). When the spiritual activity is done out of love
or reverence, it leads to wordly or other worldly prosperity (abhyudaya).
If it is done as a duty or with no motive whatever, it leads to final
emancipation.[24]
But Haribhadra is aware of some difficulties in the
practice of Yoga and the attainment of supernormal experience. He says
that we have to overcome some physical and mental inhibition before
practising the Yoga exercises. The mind of the common man (prathagjanacitta)
is vitiated by many defects. Eight defects 'have been mentioned: i)
inertia (kheda, ii) anxiety (dveg) iii) unsteadiness (ksepa). iv)
distraction (utthana). v) loss of memory (bhranty). vi) attraction for
what is not desirable (anyamud) vii) mental disturbance (ruk) and viii)
attachment (samga)[25]
In the practice of Yoga one is likely to acquire some
physical and mental powers which are beyond the common man. But these are
distractions and would lead us away from the final goal. The Jainas were
primarily concerned with the purification of the soul and the development
of detachment from the things of the world. They were against the use of
paranormal powers and miracle. This was the general view of other lndian
philosophers as well Patanjali mentions the acquisition of such powers by
the Yogi and warns him against temptations associated with these
powers.26] The Yoga believes that the citta of man is like a millstone. If
we put wheat under it, it grinds it into flour; if we put nothing under
it, it grinds on until it grinds itself away.[27]
In the highest stage omniscience (kevala) is attained.
This is not merely a negative state of knowledge. In this, one gets
experience of everything, past, present and future, as if in a moment. In
the highest form of samadhi, according to Patanjali, all possibility of
confusion between the self and the activity of the citta ceases.
Concentration of mind (Dhyana) is an essential factor
as a means to spiritual realization. The lower self sometimes gets the
vision of perfection in its purified state and aims at the attainment of
this ideal. On the attainment of prominent vision knowledge the self rises
to its own pure state ( paramatma). Dhyana is the concentration of thought
in a particular object,[28] for a certain length of time. The duration of
concentration depends on the bodily constitution, The maximum time of
concentration can be, for one antarmuhurta (about forty-eight minutes)[29]
Dhyana is further inauspicious (aprasasta) and auspicious (prasasta).
Aprasasta Dhyana leads to the influx of Karma (asrava) and the bondage of
the, soul to the wheel of life (bandha) The auspicious Karma brings about
dissociation and destruction of Karma. Arta-Dhyana and Raudradhyana are
the varieties of evil concentration. Arta-dhyana is painful concentration,
as when we experience the pain in the loss of a loved object or in the
anguish of an unsatisfied desire. Raudradhyana is vengeful concentration
as when, smarting under the injury of insult we contemplate on taking
revenge.[30] They express the pain of unsatisfied instinctive urges and
are rooted, in the animal nature of man. The Jaina analysis of the lower
types of Dhyana has a great psychological importance and need to be
studied in the light of recent research in depth of psychology.
Dharmadhyana and Sukladhyana are conditions of spiritual progress. The
nature of revelation, the fact of suffering the operation of Karma and the
structure of the universe are objects of Dharma-dhyana, Umasvati defines
Dharmadhyana as a collection of scattered thoughts (smrtisamsnvahar ) for
the sake of meditation on the objects of concentration. Jnana (knowledge),
Darsana (intuition) Caritra (good conduct) and Vairagya (non-attachment)
are needed for developing the steadfastness of mind for attaining
concentration.[31] A beginner has to select a suitable lonely place and
convenient time. Several places made holy by the sages create a better
atmosphere for Dharmadhyana[32]. Dharmadhyana is possible from the fourth
to the seventh stage of Gunasthana. As one goes higher up in the spiritual
development, one should have developed sufficient physical and mental
strength to aim at the final emancipation. The Jaina analysis of right
concentration (Dharmadhyana) is intimately woven in the moral texture in
this life. One has to practice the four-fold virtues: maitri
(friendship), pramoda (appreciation or the merits of others), karuna
(compassion) and madhya sthya (undisturbed equanimity) as the
pre-requisites of this type of concentration.[33]' And in the graded
levels of concentration the consummation is reached when the pure and
perfect self is the object of concentration. The same type of
concentration is to be reached in Sukladhyana, except for the fact that in
the Sukladhyan we get perfect concentration.
