A Perspective in Jaina Philosophy and Religion |
Prof. Ramjee Singh |
Contribution of
Haribhadra to the Yoga-vidya
[ 1 ]
The Indian systems of thought and
culture are not mere speculations on the external nature of things but
also of the mysteries of our mind and soul. Even frankly realistic
disciplines like Jainism, Nyaya-Vaisesikas and the Mimamsakas show most
serious concern to fathom the depths of mind and unravel the knowledge
like perception, inference etc. are found to be inadequate and it has been
the abiding spiritual ambition of man to extend the frontiers of his
knowledge. Even to a scientist, any attempt to put a limit to our
knowledge is the result of some wrong notions. Nothing is regarded as
static or absolute. Even to the Marxists, `there is nothing in the nature
which cannot be explained'. Thus the growth of human knowledge has been a
sort of progressive limitation of sceptical and agnostic attitudes. It
seems that it can extend without assignable limits to knowledge of
mankind. A spiritual conviction and a constant urge for the ultimate truth
is the mean of our common Sadhana. It is not only the perfection of the
cognitive faculty of the self but also its ultimate end. Hence `know
Thyself' (Atmanam viddhi) has been regarded as the climax of our spiritual
Sadhana. There are obvious limitations to our sensory knowledge, there are
antinomies of reasons. Hence, we have to transcend these usual sources of
knowledge in order to realize the truth. This process has a common term in
Indian thought - Yoga. It is not against but beyond reason (Jnana vijnana
sahitam).
[ 2 ]
The term Yoga symbolizes the core of
Indian Spiritual Sadhana. The four-fold social division of occupation (Varnavibhajana),
its trade and business, language and physical culture etc. are only the
external signs of the Aryans; even the concept of other world
(heaven-hell) is not its essential ingredients. It real and inner spirit
lies in the absolute concentration of thought or one pointedness on the
ultimate reality which is beyond the present space and time. Perhaps, on
account of this distinctive feature, the Aryans have been judged as
superior to all other races and climes.
In life, theory and practice, knowledge
and action, empirical and the transcendental require a synthesis. As a
matter of fact, the real practice of one's knowledge is called Yoga.
Knowledge precedes, Yoga succeeds. But a knowledge without its practice or
implementation is not only incomplete but also ambiguous. Thus Yoga is
superior to the Tapas, Jnana and Karma. It is the best of all the three
and includes devotion also. Yoga or union with God which is attained
through bhakti is the highest spiritual goal. Jnana is scriptural learning
(Sastra panditya) and not spiritual realization. Truly wise man is the
Yogi. Without Yoga or concentration of mind, the human energies are
frittered away in many directions and go waste. Hence, the spirit of man
is the key for the success of all practical activities. A man versed only
in scriptural learning but lacking in Yogic realization is called as `the
friend of the learned' but not a Yogi.
Then there are two dimensions of Yoga -
the external and the internal. Even the process of concentration is
regarded its outer frame, where as renunciation of all attachment and
reducing oneself to zero is its inner spirit. The real Yoga, therefore,
consists in the inner poise, self-mastery, its conquest of anger,
sensitiveness, pride and ambition. So there are two types of Yoga-the Yoga
of knowledge and the Yoga of action. The former consists in the knowledge
about the Self, its bondage, liberation and the path of liberation. But
mere knowledge or theoretical knowledge is no good. What is more important
is the performance of work without any selfish attachment to results, with
a view to securing the welfare of the world, with the realization that
agency belongs to the modes of Prakrti or to God himself. In fact, Yoga
consists in practical realization of the self.
There are three-fold tradition of
Yoga-literature in Indo-logical writings the Vedic, the Jaina and the
Bauddha. Though the term `Yoga' has occurred many times in Rg-veda, it has
always been used in the sense of `Union' only and never in the sense of
meditation or concentration of mind. Even such key-words of the
Yoga-literature like meditation, non-attachment, breath control,
withdrawal from external world etc. are absent in the Rg-veda. However,
the Upanisads do abound in the mention of these concepts. There might be
differences of opinion regarding the nature or numbers of the ultimate
reality but there is a remarkable unanimity regarding the acceptance of
yogic sadhana for its realization. All the Vedic systems including the
Nyaya-Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta accept the utility and
relevance of Yoga in their respective systems. Purva-Mimamsa is the only
exception which does not ever refer to Yoga. It is interested in
ritualistic action. The Gita and the Mahabharata, the Bhagavat, the Yoga-vasistha
and the important works on Tantra including many works of Hatha-yoga
accept the place and importance of Yoga. Many medieval saints and scholars
like Jnanadeva, Ambeya, Kabira etc. have discussed the subject of Yoga
with great seriousness.
[ 3 ]
Together with its tradition, the term
Yoga has a chequered history. In the Rg-veda, it is used in the sense of
`union' later on in about 700-800 B.C., it is used in the sense of `yoking
a horse' (uncontrolled spiritual horse). It can be traced also in German-Joch,
OE-Geoc, Latin-Juguma, Greek-Zugon. In Panini's time, the term `Yoga' had
attained its technical meaning of concentration. In Jainism, the term
Carita (conduct) is the exact equivalent of the general term `Yoga'. Jaina
tradition, predominantly being ascetic and world-negating lays stress upon
willful silence (mauna), austerities (tapas), and other yogic activities.
The Jaina Agamas describing about the conduct of the Sadhus (Sadhucarya)
refer to many yogic activities like the abstentions and observances (Yama
and Niyama), study (svadhyaya), austerities (tapas), withdrawal of the
senses (pratyahara) etc. Even the acts of volition (Pravrtti) has to he
surcharged by the spirit of volition in the negative sense (nivrtti),
technically called as Asta-Pravacana-Mala. Jaina Sadhus are directed to
concentrate on study and meditation for the three-fourths of daily
routine. In the Jaina Agamas and the Niryuktis, the term `Yoga' has been
mostly used in the sense of concentration of mind with numerous
classifications and sub-classifications. Even Tattvartha refers to dhyana
and the Dhyana-Sataka of Jinabhadra Gani Ksama Sramana is only explication
of the notion of dhyana. Hence, Yoga has been rooted in the Agamic
tradition.
[ 4 ]
But it was Haribhadra who for the first
time gave an altogether new dimension in the interpretation of Yoga. It is
only Haribhadra who defined the term `Yoga' in the sense of `what leads
one to emancipation' (mukhena, jayano savvo vi dhammovavaro). Thus he has
ushered a new era in the Yoga-literature of the Jainas. He wrote important
Yoga treatises like Yoga-bindu, Yoga-drsti-sammuccaya, Yoga-vimsika, Yoga-sataka
and Sodasaka. The term Yoga used in the general sense of subduing the
senses and the mind the process of concentration and ecstasy even in the
earlier stages of the Jaina thought as well as the early Buddhist thought.
But the terms Jnana (dhyana) and Samadhi were more in vogue than the term
Yoga. It is only in the Yoga-sutra of Patanjali that we find the proper
location of dhyana in the eight-fold process of Yoga, for the first time.
Haribhadra's in his characteristic catholic outlook did not discuss and
interpret Yoga according to the Jaina tradition only but he made a
comparative and critical study of Patanjali's Yoga etc. The description of
eight-fold standpoints in the Yoga-drsti-sammuccaya is altogether a new
dimension in Yoga literature.
All spiritual and religious activities
that lead towards emancipation are considered by Haribhadra as Yoga. His
ingenuity lies in the yogic interpretation of the Jaina doctrine of
Spiritual development (Guna-sthana). The soul has inherent capacity for
emancipation but this capacity remains dormant and inactive due to Karmic
influences. But the soul can be roused to active spiritual excertion which
is nothing other than yogic activities. The Jainas do not believe either
in the eternal revelation of the truth like the Mimamsakas and the
Vedantins, or, in its revelation by a Supreme Divinity like the
Nyaya-vaisesikas and the Patanjali-yoga. Only rare souls known as
Tirthankaras, who have acquired potency of revealing the truth and
preaching it to the world by their moral and virtuous activities can also
help in arousing us from moral slumber. The centrifugal tendency of soul
to run away from the fetters of world existence is thwarted by a
centripetal force of attachment (raga), repulsion (dvesa) and perverted
attitude (mithyatva). However, the soul, when it achieves purification
feel uneasiness with the worldly existence and shows manifestation of
energy known as Yathapravrttakarana for the spiritual advancement. But the
struggle between the two-fold processes, centrifugal and the centripetal
continues unless the soul develops such spiritual strength as is destined
to lead it to final emancipation by reducing the duration and intensity
and also the mass of Karmic-matter through the triple processes of
Yathapravrttakarana, apurva-karana and anivrttikarana. The soul then
starts climbing up the spiritual ladders of Upasamasreni (ladder of
subsidence) and Ksapakasreni (ladder of annihilation) up to the final
fourteenth stage of absolute motionlessness.
Haribhadra's style of describing the
fourteen stages of spiritual development through the process of Yoga is
original and illuminating. While discussing, he has mentioned the names of
many Yogis and treatises on Yoga. A crucial problem is posed by Haribhadra
to know the real point of the beginning of the spiritual development of
soul desiring salvation in the timeless world of attachment. According to
Haribhadra, when the influence of deluding Karma start decreasing, the
process of spiritual development starts. The state prior to this beginning
of the spiritual development is called `Acaram Pudgala Paravarta', while
the posterior state is called `Caram Pudgala Paravarta'. Between these two
poles of Acaram and Caram, we have the different stages of spiritual
development. Here in the process of Yoga begins, which causes simplicity,
humility, catholicity, benevolence and other virtues in the soul. The
emergence of these ethical virtues are the outer signs of the spiritual
development of the soul.
The special features of Haribhadra is
his comparative studies in Yoga. For example, in Yoga-vimsika, wherein
five kinds of activities (Sthana, Urna, Artha, Alambana and Analambana)
divided into external activity (Karma-yoga) and internal spiritual
activity (Jnana-yoga), are discussed, Haribhadra has tried to correlate
them with stages of spiritual development (Guna-sthana). For example,
these activities can be properly practiced only by those who have attained
the fifth or a still higher stage of Guna-sthana. In this way, Haribhadra
correlates the different stages of Guna-sthanas to the different stages of
concentration (dhyana). Haribhadra compares analambana-yoga with
samprajnata samadhi in Patanjali's system, the final consummation of
analambana concentration is Asamprajnata samadhi. Similarly, the
fourteenth stage of spiritual development corresponds to the dharmamegha
samadhi to bhavasatru of a third system, to amrtatman of yet another
system, to bhavasatru of a third system, to Sivodaya of yet another
school. Similarly, Haribhadra tries to show the unanimity of the
conception of final self-realization of all the systems of thought.
Haribhadra enumerates eight primary defects, from which the mind of a
yogin must always be free. By practicing the concentration of mind the
soul realizes itself. This is known as Supreme bliss (Paramananda) in the
Vedanta, the extinguished lamp (vidhmatadipa) of the Buddhists, extinction
of Animality (pasutvavigama), end of suffering (dukkhanta), freedom from
the specific qualities (Nyaya-vaisesika), and detachment from the elements
(bhuta-vigama). Like an impartial truth-seeker, Haribhadra asks the
seekers to keep their minds open and investigate the truth with perfect
detachment and freedom from prejudices.
Similarly, Haribhadra shows that there
is a fundamental unity among all apparently conflicting systems of thought
regarding the means to free from the worldly existence. He asks us to see
unity in diversities. He lays down five steps as a complete course of
Yoga, i.e., Contemplation of truth (adhyatma), Repeated practice (bhavana),
Concentration of mind (dhyana), Equanimity (samata) and Annihilation of
all the traces of karman (Vrttisamksaya). The same principle, according to
Haribhadra, is expressed by different terms. It is Purusa in the Vedanta
as well as Jaina system, as Jnana in the Buddhist school, Ksetravit in the
Samkhya system. Similarly, the fundamental ground of worldly existence is
called Avidya (Vedanta and Buddhism), Prakrti (Samkhya), Karman (Jainas).
Similarly, the relation between matter and spirit is known as Bharati
(Vedanta and Buddhism), Pravrtti (Samkhya) and Bandha in Jaina system.
Haribhadra referring to Gopendra of the Samkhya System holds that the
Purusa does not even inquire about the path of realization unless the
Prakrti has turned her face from it. In other words, it is the nature of
the Spirit to get disentangled from matter. For this requisite
purification of the soul is very necessary. Then the soul becomes a
boadhisattva or Tirthankara. When a man becomes a boddhisattva, there is
no mere spiritual degeneration to him. He does not commit evil or sin, on
the contrary, he is taken exclusively in the well-being of others,
acquires wisdom, treads upon right path and appreciates merit. Haribhadra
compares the Jaina conception of Tirthankaras with the Bodhisattvas. He
distinguishes three categories of souls destined to be emancipated-Tirthankaras,
Ganadharas and Munda-kevalins. Haribhadra's contribution also lies in
suggesting five-fold stages of preliminary preparation for Yoga as we find
in Patanjali's scheme of Yama and Niyama. As we have referred earlier, the
stages of the soul are adhyatma, bhavana, dhyana, Samata and the last
Vrttisamksaya. Here the accumulated and obscuring karmas are destroyed for
ever and the soul attains omniscience and final emancipation.
In Yoga-drsti-samuccaya, Haribhadra
presents a novel plan of classification of Yogic stages. The core of this
scheme is the concept of Drsti which means attitude towards truth. The
most important features of spiritual development is acquisition of love of
truth (Samyag-drsti). The gradual purification of its love of truth takes
place corresponding to the purification of soul. So long the soul has not
cut the knot and attained purification, our attitude is bound to be wrong,
and perverse called as avidya, mithyatva or darsana-moha. Without
purification of the soul, we can have only common place attitude of the
spiritually advanced soul (yoga-drsti). Haribhadra listed eight kinds of
gradual development of love of truth (drsti) corresponding to the
eight-fold stages of Patanjali's Yoga. Haribhadra refers to the consensus
of opinion of a number of authors regarding the stages of Yoga in his
Svopajnavrtti. His love of truth is so great that he can never be
sectarian. Haribhadra asks us to realize the truth by means of all the
three organs - scriptures, logic and practice of Yoga in keeping with best
tried and trusted tradition of India. The truth is one. It cannot be many.
There is only the difference of angles or terminology. Yoga is not the
monopoly of a particular sect or system. It is based on direct experience
of the seers and lovers of truth. Differences in terminologies of
different system about the same concept is illustrated by Haribhadra. For
example, the state of final realization is known as Sadasiva in one
system, Parabrahmana in another, Siddhantatnam in the third and tathata in
another system. Hence, there can be no conflict when the truth is
realized. Controversies take place only when the truth has not been
realized as an empty pot sounds much. The various revelations have to be
understood from various contexts and angles. The love of truth (drsti)
give us the power to cultivate faith in spiritual revelations, Similarly,
referring to the seventh drsti (nrabha), Haribhadra compares it with
Visabhaga-Pariksaya in the Buddhist School, Prasantavahita in the Samkhya
and Sivavartman in the Saiva system, and as dhruvadhvan in the
Mahavartikas.
Besides these eight-fold drstis
corresponding to the eight steps of Yogic-sadhana in Patanjali, Haribhadra
refers to the three-fold Yoga - The first stage is Iccha Yoga when inspite
of knowledge and will, the Yogic practitioner falters in his practice on
account of inertia (Pramada). The second stage is called Sastra Yoga,
wherein the practitioner does never falter in his yogic practices,
strictly follows the scriptural injunctions and has developed penetrating
insight. The third and the last stage of Yoga is Samrthya Yoga, when he
has fully mastered the scriptural injunctions and has developed the power
to transcend them. There are the three broad divisions of all the possible
stages of Yoga and the eight-fold drstis are only the elaboration of these
three. Similarly, Haribhadra's four-fold classification of Yogins, viz.,
gotra, kula, pravrttacakra and nispanna. The first are not incapable of
emancipation while the last have already achieved their final state.
Hence, it is only the Kula and Pravrttacakra yogins who need yogic
instruction.
In spite of these resemblances, there
are fundamental differences also with the mystical way adopted by the
Jaina monk. Yoga-system of Patanjali has not recognized the imperativeness
of mystical conversion. Probably, it confuses moral with the mystical
conversion , the importance of initiation by a Guru, and the necessity of
seeking his guidance at every step, the possibility of fall from certain
heights, i.e., dark-nights of the soul, the significance of Pratikramana
and Pratyakhyana. Haribhadra knew these different systems of Indian
thought. The process of spiritual development as traced in Yoga-drsti-samuccaya
is different from that we find in Yoga-bindu. Yoga-vimsika does not
describe the preliminary stages of spiritual development but it discuss
adequately about the later stages. Altogether, Haribhadra's studies in
Yoga-vidya is a landmark in Indian spiritual sadhana.