Jain Metaphysics :
Jeinism has contributed much to the field of metaphysics and ontology.
Jain metaphysics starts with the scientific axiom that �nothing is
destructible� that is, nothing can be created out of nothing or out of
something which does not at all exist in one form or the other. Thus it
means that the cosmos or universe is eternal, everlasting, without a
beginning, and without an end. Ontologically, Jainism does not accept
creation of the world by anyone. The cosmic constituents are themselves
capable of explaining the diverse phenomena by their respective
functioning and interaction. These cosmic constituents primarily fail
under two categories, Jiva ( life or animate objects ) and Ajiva (
non-life or inanimate objects ). So Jaina ontology may be described as a
realistic dualism. The Jiva category comprises an infinite number of
Independent spirit-units ( souls ) and the Ajiva, the five categories
including pudgala which is composed of an infinite number of atomic
units, the system may be described as a pluralistic realism. The five
ajiva categories are pudgala or matter, Dharma or medium of motion,
Adharma or medium of rest, Akasha or space and kala or time.
The Jiva is the very antithesis of matter and cannot be perceived by the
senses. It is essentially constituted of sentiency and its differential
is the manifestation of consciousness which takes the form of Dharshana
arid Jnana and flows at a time any one of the three channels,
inauspicious, auspicious and pure indicating impiety, piety and purity
respectively. The development of the soul�s sentiency is also three
fold, that is soul is either the knower ( Jnata ) the doer ( karta ) and
the enjoyer
( Bhokta ). The souls are infinite in number and some are pure,
liberated ones that is mukta and the rest mundane that is Samsarin
living a bodily or embodied existence. Each soul is one complete whole
in itself. It is eternal, immortal and retains its individuality even in
liberation. It is not all-pervasive and in the embodied state is of the
same size as the body it happens to occupy. It has no definable shape.
All souls are equal and alike in their inherent, essential qualities,
intrinsic characteristics and potentialities. They all are capable of
attaining liberation.
The pudgala, so called because it is amenable to constant composition or
decomposition, is inanimate matter, concrete, gross, perceptible by the
sense and possessed of sensory qualities to its last unit paramanu. The
world is full of material bodies in which the aggregatory process goes
on because of their inherent qualities of cohesion and avidness.
Dharma and Adharma are described as substances because they exist as
neutral and conditional causes respectively of motion and rest and are
non-corporeal but homogenous whole in their constitution. They are
simply passive, inactive agents or media for the other substances to
move or stop as the case may be. In no other philosophical systems of
the world are these terms used in this sense and merely convey ethico-religious
ideas. Dr. Jacobi holds this peculiarity of Jainism as mark of its
antiquity.
The characteristic of Akasha is to give space. It is its nature to
accommodate everything. The part of it which accommodate or inhabited by
the other five substance that is Jiva. Pudgala, Dharma, Adharma and Kala
is designated as lokakasha, whereas the empty space which extends
infinitely beyond the physical world ( Lokakasha ) is called alokakasha.
The Akasha is thus all pervading and eternal but Jainism does not hold
sound to be the quality of akasha.
The Kala or time is not one and all pervading but has a sort of
automatic constitution and is therefore, not included in the
panchastikays, the five categories of indivisible composite and
homogenous-whole substance which the others are. It helps the substances
to undergo changes and transformations which they are doing all the
time. The practical dimensions of time like second, hours, months, years
etc. are mere deduction of the real substance that Kala is. The
ultimate, smallest, indivisible unit of Akasha is called pradesha of
pudgala, anu or paramanu and of Kala samaya. Pradesha is defined as the
space occupied by one indivisible particle of matter and capable of
being occupied by even an infinite number of such particles under
abnormal condensations. Paramanu is the smallest indivisible particle of
matter, samaya is the time required for a paramanu to traverse one space
point.
Jaina Cosmology :
According to Jaina cosmology the universe comprises six Dravyas,
substances or Realities. A Dravya or reality has been defined as any
substantiality, which has the important characteristic of persistence
through changes, that is, it undergoes a transformation and re-appears
in a new form while the original substantiality still abides. Also a
reality is the basis in which attributes rest and modifications take
place. The six realities or Dravyas are the Soul ( Jiva ), Matter (
Ajiva ), Space ( Akasha ), Time ( Kala ), a Non-Material medium for the
motion of souls and the propagation of matter and engergy ( Dharma ),
The field through which the gravitational and electromagnetic forces
operate for maintaining the unity of the microscopics as well as the
microscopic world ( Adharma ). The number of substances is fixed as six,
it can never be seven or five. These substances are eternal and
unchanging in their characteristic leaving aside the substance matter
all others are nonmaterial and formless and hence devoid of all
properties associated with matter. Thus Jain cosmology clearly states
that the cosmos or universe with its six basic constituents, the dravyas
is a veritable reality by virtue of its very existence. It is uncreated,
self existent, beginningless, endless, eternal and infinite. The six
categories, that is, Jiva, Pudgaia, Dharma, Adharma, Akasha and Kala are
called Dravyas and the differential of a dravya is sat, that is
existentialism. These dravyas being themselves existential give an
existential character to the universe. They are not the fragments of
somebody�s imaginations but are the outcome of a comprehensive analysis
of the subjective and objective existence. The sat ( reality ) is
characterised by the trio of origination ( Utpada ), destruction
( Vyaya ) and permanence ( Dhrauvya ). Thus it is both permanent ( Nitya
) and impermanent ( Anitya ) at one and the same time. Dravya is made up
of Gunas or qualities and Paryayas or modes or modifications. It is the
substratum of qualities and modes which are its determinates and on
which its own intelligibility depends. Divested of its qualities and
modes the substances would become merely an abstraction a void. Moreover
the Dravya is not immutable but is subject to constant, incessant
changes in the qualities and modes with which it is endowed or of which
it is made. Origination and destruction refers to modification of
qualities on the permanent bedrock of substance. It is only the
permanent that changes, for in the absence of permanence change is
absolutely meaningless. At the same time, no amount of change in the
qualities or modes of a substance can ever convert it into another
substance, that is, soul can never become Non-soul and vice versa. The
same being true of all other dravyas. Dr. Upadhye calls it a peculiarly
common sense view, which is deduced from such patent and handy
illustrations of that of a ring coming into existence after a bangle is
melted and reshaped, the gold remaining there all the time as permanent
substance. Thus the real or dravya is both permanent and impermanent
accordingly as it is looked upon from the point of view of the qualities
which constitute it or from Mat of the modes or modification which are
constantly occurring in those qualities.
Jaina Cosmography:
Jain cosmography states that the loka, the part of the unbounded,
unlimited akasha in which all the six dravyas are found existing side by
side, has a definite shape and size. It is three dimensional. In shape
it resembles the figure of a man standing akimbo with feet apart. The
cylindrical section is the trasanali, which alone is inhabited by mobile
( trasa ) living bodies. The trasanali is divided into three parts, the
central, the upper and the lower. Right at the top is the
crescent-shaped abode of the Siddhas or liberated souls. Below it and
above the central part are located the heavens where celestial beings
reside. The lower region constitutes neither world nor hills. In the
central or middle hemispherical space is accommodated the human and
animal world which is made up of circular belts of land and sea
alternating each other. The very central expanse of land is Jambudvipa
with Mount Sumeru at its center and ocean surrounding it on all sides.
This Jambudvipa corresponds to our earth. To the south of Mount Sumeru
lies the Bharatakshetra the mid-region of which include Bharatavarsha or
India, watered by Ganga and Sindhu.
Classification of Jiva :
The Jiva or soul has various characteristics. There are infinite number
of souls and the whole world is literally filled with them. The souls
are substances and are eternal. The intelligence of soul can never be
destroyed. Soul is ever all perfect and powerful, but by ignorance it
identifies itself with the matter and hence its degradation and troubles
start. The Jiva or soul are of two categories, Mukta or liberated soul
and Samsari or mundane or embodied soul. The samsari Jivas or mandane
souls are the embodied souls of living beings in the world and are still
subject to the cycle of births and deaths. Mukta Jivas or the liberated
souls who are not to be embodied in future, have accomplished absolute
purity, dwell in the state of perfection, no more to do with worldly
affairs have reached Mukti or Moksha having four enjoyments that is,
Ananta darshana, Ananta Jnana, Ananta Virya, Ananta Sukha. The mundane
souls ( samsari Jiva ) are divided into two groups that is samanaska
Jivas, that is those who have a mind and amanaska Jivas that is those
who have no mind. Embodied souls or samsari Jivas are divided into the
immobile ( Sthavara ) and the mobile ( Trasa ). Souls embodied in earth,
water, fire, air and vegetation comprise the five classes of the
immobile living beings ( Sthavara Jivas ) which are endowed with only
one-sense organ, that of touch. Among mobile living beings ( Trasa-Jivas
) are the two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five-sensed ones
accordingly as they are endowed with the faculty of touch and taste,
touch, taste and smell, touch, taste, smell and sight and touch, taste,
smell, sight and hearing respectively. Some of the five sensed beings
are equipped with mind or intelligence, while others are devoid of this
facility. The former again falls under four categories, the human,
subhuman
( animal kingdom ) hellish and celestial beings. These are the four
conditions or gaits in one or the other of which the mundane embodied
souls are found living. These mundane souls are called Samsari Jivas
because they have been for ever ceaselessly undergoing the round of
births that is samsara.
Concept of Samsara and Transmigration :
The Jiva and Ajiva are thus not mere philosophical postulates but reals
as spirit and matter, which are pluralistic, eternal and not liable to
lose and interchange their nature. With the simple dogma that the soul
has been associated with matter from times immemorial, Jainism explains
the samsara ( the round of rebirths ) as a remedy against which religion
is needed. According to Jainism samsara is a fact and transmigration is
dogma. The ball of rebirth is already set in motion and for every
individual embodied mundane soul it has been going on since
beginningless time and will-continue to do so till that soul attains
liberation ( Moksha ). The cause of samsara or rebirth is karma.
Doctrine of Karma :
The doctrine of karma, as expounded in the Jaina philosophy, is a
peculiarity of its own, nothing substantially similar to it being found
in any other system. This doctrine is a direct corollary of the Jain
conception of matter which is described as being amenable to
multifarious modifications. One of these a particular and specific type
of five matter molecules is known as Karma Skandha or Karmavargana. When
these Karma molecules come in contact with the passional development of
the soul, they are transformed into the karma related to that soul. The
karma is a subtle matter which flows into the soul when latter has
become receptive for it, under the influence of attachment ( raga ) or
aversion ( dvesha ), the two modes of spiritual delusion ( moha ). The
samsarin soul has continued to be held in the bondage of karma since
beginningless time and being associated, with this karmic matter. It has
never been without a concrete embodiment. The association with karmic
matter causes emotional and passional developments in the soul which in
their turn result in attaching further karmic bondage of the soul. In
its embodied state, the soul comes to possess many material adjuncts,
which together with the various grades and conditions of existence to
which such n soul is subjected are due to the karma that holds it in
bondage.
The soul is not the direct agent of these material karmas, but only of
its own psychic conditions and states of consciousness which find
expression in the vibration ( yogas ) caused by its mental, vocal and
bodily activities. These vibrations of the mundane soul being already
tinged with emotions and passions cause the karmic influx. Thus the soul
when in conjunction with matter, develops a sort of susceptibility which
finds expression in the soul�s passional states. The latter, in their
turn, cause the soul to establish a relationship with matter and let
itself be held in bondage. The actual spring of our action are the
psychic activities, feeling, emotion, passions etc. of the soul itself
which are called the Bhava-Karma, as distinct from the dravya karmas
which are material or matter forms. The former leads to the latter and
the latter to the former. The process goes on unless the soul of its own
conscious effort attains total liberation from both the forms of Karma,
Bhava and Dravya, subjective and objective.
The Dravya and Bhava karma is divided into eight primary classes and one
hundred and forty-eight subclasses. The Primary or principal classes of
karma obstruct, cover, obscure, distort, pervert or prevent the full
expression of the eight cardinal qualities and attributes of the soul.
These karmas are as follows:
1 ) Jnanavarana : Which covers or obstructs comprehension or
knowledge.
2 ) Darshanavarana : Which covers intuition, apprehension or
perception.
3 ) Vedaniya : Which causes feelings of pleasure and pains.
4 ) Mohaniya : Which affects delusion, entological and moral
theoretical and practical.
5 ) Ayu : Which determines the nature or mortal existence and its
duration in contravention of the immortal continuity of the pure soul.
6 ) Nama : Which causes the bodiless soul to be embodied endowing
it with the various adjuncts of physical and corporeal existence.
7 ) Gotra : Which causes differences in genealogical, racial and
social status; thus producing gradation in what is otherwise unguarded.
8 ) Antaraya : Which obstructs and hampers the full play of the
infinite energy and capacity of soul in giving away, in obtaining or
acquiring, in enjoying and in exerting or making efforts.
Of these eight classes, the Jnanavarana, Darshanavarana, Mohaniya and
Antaraya are called Ghatis because they affect main spiritual faculties
and capacities and so long as they remain, the soul cannot attain
godhood or become an Arhat-Kevalin. The remaining four are known as
Aghatis since they do not obstruct spiritual qualities but have their
effect only in states of the subordinate forms.
Doctrine of karma is founded on simple law of cause and effect. No
effect is without a cause. One has to bear sooner or later the
consequences of his or her acts of commission or omission, good and bad
if not possible: to escape them. Since the consequences of all the acts
done cannot be worked out in one and same life-time, there may
positively follow a future birth to enable their fruition, mid the
process goes on. The obvious disparity and diversity in the mental,
physical, hereditary, environmental and sundry other conditions of
individuals at and since birth, which cannot be explained away as being
caused by one�s efforts or by chance, fully substantiate the doctrine of
karma. With its help transmigration of souls becomes a proven fact and
through it their continuity and immortality can be established beyond
doubt. It provides a scientific nod rational explanation for the diverse
phenomena and experiences of one�s own life as well as of others. The
Karma doctrine also does away with the necessity of any outside agency,
a supreme being creator, destroyer and preserver, for punishing or
rewarding living beings. They and they alone are responsible for their
own actions and themselves benefit by or suffer from the consequences
good or bad as they may be. The theory inspires the individual to fight
and annihilate the Karmic forces by developing will-power and putting in
his own personal effort. In ordinary course the chain of Karmic bondage
goes on ceaselessly developing, the older karmas dropping off after
fruition and the new ones coming in and binding the soul. But as soon as
one realises the truth and with due faith and requisite right knowledge
brings his free will into play, puts on adequate effort, begins to
struggle against the current, he can succeed in loosening the bonds even
in converting the bad Karmas into good ones and in ultimately freeing
himself completely from their thralldom. Thus by no implication does the
Jain theory of Karma lead to a belief in determinism, fatalism or blind
destiny. The entire emphasis is on the development of strong will -
power and conscious personal efforts. In order to thwart and annihilate
the various adverse influences internal and external and in this way to
affect a gradual spiritual evolution leading to the ultimate goal-the
very godhood, whence there is no return to the samsara. This
transformation of man into God is the ultimate aim and realisable goal
for a man. He is the master of his destiny and can make it according to
his wills. This optimism, based on a rational conviction and profound
faith in the intrinsic purity and perfection of the self ( soul ). Its
capacity and capability to realise, recover and retain for ever its
essential nature ( Dharma ) that is Godhood, through philosophical
enlightenment and a rigorous course of moral and spiritual self
discipline is the keynote of Jainism. This idea of Karma is not unknown
to other religions or philosophical systems, but in no Brahmanical,
Buddhist or Western works, has this term been so extensively used, nor
in the same peculiar and specific sense as in the Jain philosophy.
